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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT    LOS  ANGELES 


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Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

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FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF 

AGRICULTURE 


BY 

EMMET  S.  GOFF 

Late  Professor  of  Horticulture,  University  of  Wisconsin 
AND 

D.  D.  MAYNE 

Principal   of  School   of  Agriculture   and  Professor    of 
Agricultural  Pedagogics,  University  of  Minnesota 


AMERlCAt^T  'book:   COMPAi^JY 

NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 


Copyright,  1Q04,  1918,  bt 

D.  D.  MAYNE 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 


G.  Ain>  U.  AORICUXTCRE 
E.  p.  3 


CO 
CO 


m  PREFACE. 

Lu 

(__:     The  importance  of  the  vocational  element  in  education 
"■■^as  come  to  be  generally  recognized.    In  response  to  popular 
^demand  guided  by  professional  advice,  state  and  national 
K  governments  are  back  of  this  new  educational  development. 
J-^  Educators  are  urging  its  wider  adoption  and  its  more  inti- 
mate application  to  the  environment  of  the  child.    If  voca- 
tional courses  are  properly  adapted  to  community  needs, 
U5  their  educative  value  is  not  only  highly  utilitarian  but  is 

2  also  mentally  disciplinary  in  the  best  sense  of  that  phrase, 
o     The  most  wide-spread  and  most  pronounced  demand  for 

vocational  education  is  in  our  rural  schools.    Here  the  call 

J^  is  for  the  teaching  of  the  principles  of  agriculture.    Farming 

as  a  vocation  is  subject  to  the  same  high  requirements  of 

present-day   efiSciency   as   are   other   vocations.     This  is 

>",  necessary  economically  so  that  we  may  be  able  to  meet 

;/ world  competition.     It  is  necessary  socially  so  that  each 

^may  produce  the  materials  of  food  and  clothing  to  the 

}g  greatest  capacity  of  his  farm.     Agriculture  is  not  hap- 

o  hazard  farming.    It  is  a  science  whose  principles  must  be 

3  mastered  before  they  can  be  intelligently  applied.     The 
place  to  begin  that  mastery  is  in  our  rural  schools. 

Even  the  teacher  with  little  technical  knowledge  of  the 
subject  and  with  limited  experience  can  direct  her  pupils 
into  the  ways  of  understanding  if  she  is  provided  with  a 
proper  textbook.  This  book  should  deal  with  fundamental 
principles  in  a  simple  and  an  interesting  way.     Thus  it 

3 


234G12 


4  PREFACE 

serves  as  a  safe  guide  to  the  teacher;  and  to  the  pupils  it  is 
an  inspiration  to  experiment,  to  inquire  of  practical  farmers, 
and  to  read  and  study  further.  Fortunately  an  abundance 
of  supplemental  reading  matter  is  readily  obtainable  from 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  at  Washington,  D.  C,  and 
State  Experiment  Stations. 

A  notable  demonstration  of  the  value  of  the  study  of 
agriculture  in  the  rural  school  course  may  be  cited  from  the 
experience  of  one  of  the  northwestern  states.  This  state 
passed  a  law  requiring  that  elementary  agriculture  be 
taught  in  the  rural  schools.  The  law  had  been  in  force  for  a 
period  of  ten  years,  so  that  the  boys  and  girls  who  had  had 
this  instruction  were  then  the  men  and  women  managing  or 
working  on  the  farms  of  the  state.  The  results  of  this 
instruction  are  reflected  by  the  statistics  furnished  by  the 
United  States  Government. 

During  this  decade  the  state  raised  more  flax  to  the  acre 
than  any  other  state.  It  stood  first  in  the  yield  to  the  acre 
of  oats,  barley,  spring  wheat,  and  sugar  beets.  It  stood 
second  in  acre  yield  in  potatoes,  exceeded  only  by  a  state 
using  many  tons  of  commercial  fertilizer.  It  stood  fifth 
in  acre  yield  of  com,  being  exceeded  only  by  the  highest 
yielding  state  by  2.5  bushels.  Such  a  record  over  a  ten-year 
period  can  be  explained  in  no  other  way  than  through  the 
influence  of  the  instruction  given  in  agriculture  in  the  rural 
schools  of  the  state. 

Other  states  have  adopted  similar  laws,  and  through  the 
influence  of  the  Federal  Government  and  the  demand  for 
greater  efficiency  in  agriculture,  the  teaching  of  the  subject 
in  the  rural  schools  will  become  universal.  Acres  of  Amer- 
ican farms  will  soon  produce  much  more  than  ever  before; 


PREFACE  5 

but  the  greatest  value  to  farming  will  come  through  building 
up  a  permanent  system  of  agriculture,  based  upon  sound 
principles.  Such  a  system  will  mean  for  coming  generations 
bread  for  the  eater  and  a  life  of  contentment  and  joy  for  the 
producer. 

To  meet  the  demand  set  forth  above,  First  Principles  of 
Agriculture  has  been  especially  written.  As  its  name  in- 
dicates, it  stresses  the  fundamentals  of  the  science.  The 
lessons  are  concrete,  calling  for  the  study  of  actual  illustra- 
tive material  which  is  readily  available.  Above  all,  the 
authors  have  constantly  kept  in  mind  the  fact  that  boys  and 
girls  are  to  be  its  readers.  Accordingly  the  book  is  written 
simply  and  interestingly. 

D.  D.  M. 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Dead  and  Living  Matter 9 

The  Soil  and  Soil  Water 13 

Plants  and  Water 17 

How  Plants  Feed 20 

How  Plants  Grow  .........  25 

The  Ideal  Soil 29 

How  to  Keep  the  Soil  Fertile 33 

Humus  in  the  Soil        38 

How  Legumes  Help  the  Farmer  .     .     .41 

The  Rotation  of  Crops 47 

Saving  Soil  Moisture  .     . 52 

The  Parasites  of  Plants 55 

Seeds  Can  Not  Germinate  Without  Air   .  60 

Packing  the  Soil  About  Planted  Seeds  63 

Seed  Testing 67 

How  Seeds  "Come  up" 71 

It  is  Wise  to  Plant  the  Largest  Seeds     .  75 

Rearing  Plants  from  Buds 78 

Transplanting 84 

How  TO  Improve  Plants .88 

The  Flower  and  Its  Parts 92 

Imperfect  and  Perfect  Flowers     ....  97 

Corn loi 

Wheat 116 

Crops  and  Weeds 125 

More  About  Weeds 129 

6 


CONTENTS  7 

PAGE 

27.  The  Garden 150. 

28.  The  Orchard 157 

29.  Semitropical  Fruits 163 

30.  Irrigation  and  Dry  Farming 170 

31.  Animals  that  Destroy  Insects 175 

32.  Animal  Husbandry 184 

33.  Principal  Dairy  Breeds 186 

34.  Beef  Breeds 189 

35.  Dairying 191 

36.  Directions  for  Making  the  Babcock  Test     .  201 

37.  Principles  of  Feeding 205 

38.  Horses 213 

39.  Sheep 219 

40.  Swine 225 

41.  Poultry 229 

42.  Ducks  and  Turkeys 234 

43.  Bee-keeping 237 

44.  Improvement  of  Home  and  School  Yards       .  245 

Appendix 253 

Index 267 


Plate  I. 


MAXIMUS 


^J 


CHERRY 


MORGAN  S  FAVORITE 


# 


COLUMBUS 


# 


SMITH  S   IMPROVED 


WHITE   GRAPE 


# 


CHAUTAUQUA 


HOUGHTON 


# 


DOWNING 


STRAWBERRIES 


GOOSEBERRIES 


CURRANTS 


SINGLE  COMB  BROWN  LEGHORN  (above)  HOUDANS  (center) 

LIGHT   BRAHMAS     (below) 


PLATE   III. 


PARTRIDGE  COCHINS    (above)        BARRED  PLYMOUTH  ROCKS    (center) 
SILVER   LACED    WYANDOTTES    (below) 


INDIAN  GAMES  (above)  ROUEN  DUCKS  (center) 

BRONZE    TURKEYS     (bcIow) 


Plate  V. 


GUERNSEY  COW  (above) 


JERSEY  COW  (below) 


AYRSHIRE  COW   (above)  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  COW    (below) 


Plate  VII. 


SHORTHORN  COW  (above) 


RED  POLLED  COW    (bclow) 


Plate  VIII. 


HKRICFORD  COW    (aboVc) 


GALLOWAY  COW    (below) 


FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  I. — Grain  of  sand, 
magnified. 


1.    DEAD  AND  LIVING  MATTER. 

Illustrative  material:     A   few   grains   of  sand   on   a   piece   of 
paper.     Examine  the  grains  carefully. 

Dead  Matter. —  Figure  i  shows  a  grain  of  sand  as  it 
appears  under  the  microscope.  Its  corners  have  been 
rounded  by  rubbing  against  other 
grains  of  sand.  It  can  not  move; 
it  can  not  change  its  form.  We 
might  leave  it  under  the  microscope 
and  look  at  it  daily  for  a  year,  and  it 
would  look  just  the  same  every  time. 
It  never  grows  larger  and  never  di- 
vides into  other  grains  of  sand  unless  it  is  broken  by 
some  outside  force.     It  has  no  life ;  it  is  dead. 

Living  Matter. — Figure  2 
shows  some  yeast  plants  as 
they  appear  under  the  micro- 
scope. The  yeast  plant  is  so 
small  that  it  can  be  seen  only 
with  a  microscope.  Each  yeast 
plant  consists  of  a  closed  sack 
or  cell,  containing  a  jellylike 
liquid  called  protoplasm,  which 

is  the  living  substance  of  the  cell.    Within  the  protoplasm 
is  a  central  body  called  the  nucleus.    If  we  watch  the  yeast 

9 


Fig. 


-Yeast  plants,  magnified. 


lO  DEAD   AND   LIVING   MATTER 

plant  under  the  microscope,  we  find  that  it  changes  in  form. 
Sometimes  little  swellings  grow  out,  like  knobs  on  a  potato, 
and  these  will  by  and  by  separate  themselves  from  the 
parent  and  become  other  yeast  plants.  The  yeast  plant  is 
alive;  so  is  every  growing  plant. 

The  Ameba. —  Figure  3  shows  several  specimens  of 
the  ameba,  an  animal  found  in  stagnant  water.    It  is  so 

small  that  it  can  be  seen  only 
with  a  microscope.  The  ameba 
consists  of  a  single  cell.  It  can 
move  itself  about;  it  can  change 

FIG.  3.-Amebas.  magnified.  j^^    ^^^.    j^.    ^^^    ^^^^    ^^^    ^^ 

make  other  amebas.  The  ameba,  like  the  yeast  plant,  is 
alive.  Plants  and  animals  have  life.  Sand  and  all  other 
minerals  are  dead. 

Plants  and  Animals  Grow. —  If  we  put  a  drop  of  fresh 
yeast  into  a  bottle  containing  well  water  with  some  sugar 
and  a  little  white  of  egg  stirred  into  it,  and  set  the  bottle 
in  a  warm  place,  in  a  few  hours  the  liquid  will  become 
whitish  in  color.  This  is  because  millions  of  new  yeast 
plants  have  formed  from  the  few  we  put  in.  The  young 
yeast  plants  and  amebas  are  at  first  small,  but  they 
grow  until  they  are  as  large  as  their  parents.  Plants  and 
animals  increase  in  number,  and  grow  in  size.  Dead 
things  can  not,  of  themselves,  grow  or  increase  in 
number. 

Cells. —  Figure  4  shows  a  small  part  of  an  apple  leaf, 
as  it  appears  under  the  microscope.  Notice  that  it  is 
made  up  of  many  small  sacks  grown  together.  Each  of 
these  little  sacks  is  a  cell.  Cells  are  the  smallest  units  of 
the  building  materials  that  make  up  a  plant  or  an  animal. 


DEAD  AND  LIVING  MATTER 


II 


A  plant  large  enough  to  be  handled  is  made  up  of  a  mul- 
titude of  cells  grown  together,  each  of  which  is,  or  has 
been,  alive.  An  animal  large 
enough  to  be  seen  without  a 
microscope  is  also  made  up 
of  many  living  cells,  each  of 
which  is  like  the  ameba  in 
many  respects. 

Needs  of  Plants  and  Ani- 
mals—  Plants  and  animals 
need  certain  things  to  keep 
them  in  health.  Without  food 
and  water,  they  can  not  live 
long.  They  must  receive  a 
certain  amount  of  warmth,  or 
they  will  either  freeze  to  death 
or  cease  to  grow.  Animals 
and  the  higher  forms  of  plant  life  must  have  air.  The 
protoplasm  in  certain  cells  of  the  higher  plants  must  have 
light,  or  the  plants  will  soon  die.  To  keep  plants  and 
animals  healthy,  we  must  provide  them  with  the  things 
that  they  need. 

Produce —  The  farmer  rears  plants  and  animals.  He 
rears  plants  on  his  land,  and  his  animals  feed  on  the 
plants.  Plants  and  animals  reared  on  the  farm  are 
called  produce.  The  farmer  sells  a  part  of  his  produce 
to  those  that  need  it,  and  thus  secures  the  means  to  buy 
clothing  and  tools,  to  erect  his  buildings,  to  improve 
his  home,  and  to  educate  his  children.  His  soil  is  formed 
of  mineral  matters  and  the  dead  remains  of  plants  and 
animals.     The  farmer  needs  to  learn  all  he  can  about 


Fig.  4 — Showing  cells  for  the  apple  leaf 
in  a  section  from  its  upper  to  its 
lower  surface.  Highly  magnified.  The 
spaces  marked  I  are  cavities  between 
the  cells. 


12  DEAD   AND  LIVING   MATTER 

the  soil,  and  how  plants  and  animals  grow.  He  should 
also  strive  to  learn  what  crops  are  likely  to  repay  his 
labor  best,  and  how  to  dispose  of  these  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage of  himself  and  his  farm. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  is  protoplasm?    What  is  a  nucleus? 

2.  What  three  things  can  the  ameba  do  that  a  grain  of 
sand  can  not  do? 

3.  How  do  yeast  plants  increase  in  number? 

4.  What  do  plants  and  animals  need  in  order  to  live? 

5.  What  are  yeast  plants  used  for  in  your  home? 

6.  What  things  are  necessary  that  animals  may  live? 
What  things  do  most  plants  require  in  order  to  live?  Do 
yeast  plants  need  light? 

7.  In  your  notebook  write  five  important  facts  you  have 
learned  in  this  lesson. 


2.    THE  SOIL  AND  SOIL  WATER. 


Illustrative  material:  An  oil  lamp,  a  narrow-neck  bottle,  two 
other  bottles,  and  some  candle  wicking. 

Prepare  the  soil  lamp,  Figure  5,  by  filling  a  small,  narrow- 
neck  bottle  about  one-third  full  of  kerosene  oil,  and  then  filling 
the  bottle  to  the  top  with  small  fragments  of  dry  earth.  If  the 
oil  does  not  saturate  the  earth  to  the  top,  add  a  little  more  oil. 

Prepare  the  experiment  shown  in  Figure  6,  using  a  small  lamp 
wick  or  candle  wicking.  Add  water  to  the  left  hand  bottle,  and 
wet  the  wick  before  putting  it  in  place. 

Oil  and  the  Lamp  Wick. — In  a  lighted  oil  lamp,  the 
oil  passes  upward  through  the  wick  as  fast  as  it  burns. 
The  oil  passes  through  the  wick  because  the  wick  contains 
a  number  of  small  spaces  or  pores 
that  connect  with  one  another.  It 
would  rise  through  almost  any  very  porous 
substance  as  a  sponge,  a  piece  of  blotting 
paper,  a  piece  of  brick,  or  of  porous 
earth. 

Dry  Earth  as  a  Wick. — Figure  5  shows 
a  lamp  made  of  a  bottle  filled  with  dry 
earth,  which  answers  for  the  wick.  The 
oil  rises  through  the  earth  because 
the  earth  is  porous.  It  creeps  from 
one  particle  of  the  earth  to  another  at  the 
Fig.  s.— Earth  points  where  the  particles  touch  one  an- 

lamp.  ^  ^ 

other.  The  larger  the  particles  are,  after 
they  pass  a  certain  size,  the  slower  will  the  oil  rise,  because 
the  points  where  the  particles  touch  are  fewer. 


14 


THE    SOIL    AND    SOIL    WATER 


Capiliary  Attraction. —  Water  also  will  rise  through  a 
lamp  wick  or  other  porous  substance.  In  the  experi- 
ment shown  in  Fig- 
ure 6,  the  water 
passes  through  the 
wick  from  the  left 
bottle  into  the  right 
one.  If  the  bottle 
contained  porous 
soil,  as  in  Figure  5, 
the  water  would  rise 
through  the  soil  to 
the  top  of  the  bottle, 
where  it  would  slow- 

FiG.  6.— Illustrating  capillarity.  ly    pasS    off    intO    the 

air.  The  force  which  causes  oil,  water  or  any  other 
liquid  to  rise  through  a  porous  substance,  is  called 
capillary  attraction  or  capillarity. 

When  soil  is  saturated,  the  water  fills  all  the  spaces 
between  the  soil  particles.  In  time  much  of  this  drains 
away.  The  water  that  drains  away  is  called  free,  or  gravi- 
tational, water.  That  which  remains  after  the  free  water 
has  passed  off  is  called  capillary  water.  It  exists  as  thin 
layers  around  the  particles  of  soil,  and  is  held  to  the  par- 
ticles by  capillary  attraction. 

Evaporation. — If  we  rub  the  blackboard  with  a  damp 
cloth,  the  board  does  not  remain  wet  long,  because  the 
water  passes  off  into  the  air.  We  hang  wet  clothes  upon 
a  line  so  the  water  in  them  will  pass  off  into  the  air  and 
they  will  become  dry.  The  passing  off  of  water  from  a 
wet  surface  into  the  air,  we  call  evaporation. 


THE   SOIL  AND   SOIL  WATER 


IS 


Evaporation  Rapid. —  Water  is  evaporating  from  the 
soil  out  of  doors  nearly  all  the  time  when  it  is  not  raining; 
and,  as  in  the  lamp  wick  the  oil  rises  from  the  font  as  it 
bums  at  the  top  of  the  wick,  so  the  water  rises  from  the 
deeper  soil  as  it  evap>orates  at  the  surface.     In  countries 


Fig.  7. —  Showing  the  circulation  of  water. 


that,  have  frequent  rains,  the  water  rises  from  below 
in  dry  weather  nearly  or  quite  as  fast  as  it  evapo- 
rates, hence  the  soil  is  kept  moist  except  at  the  very 
surface. 


l6  THE   SOIL  AND   SOIL  WATER 

Water  not  at  Rest. —  During  rain,  or  whenever  the 
surface  soil  is  wetter  than  the  soil  below,  the  water  passes 
down  into  the  soil  until  it  reaches  a  layer  that  it  can  not 
pass,  or  until  the  upward  current  again  begins;  the  water 
in  the  soil  is  seldom  at  rest.  In  many  places,  there  is  a 
surplus  of  water  deep  dOwn  in  the  soil,  which  flows  into 
wells  or  flows  out  in  certain  places  as  springs. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  force  causes  a  liquid  to  rise  through  a  porous 
substance? 

2.  What  is  the  free,  or  gravitational,  water  of  the  soil? 
What  is  the  capillary  water? 

3.  Under  what  conditions  will  soil  water  evaporate  most 
rapidly? 

4.  Write  in  your  notebook  five  important  facts  learned 
in  this  lesson. 


3.    PLANTS  AND  WATER. 


Illustrative  material:  A  dried  leafy  shoot  from  some  growing 
plant  and  three  bean  seedlings  that  have  attained  their  rough 
leaves;  tw^o  small  bottles,  one  filled  with  water;  a  fruit  jar. 

Evaporation  from  Plants —  If  we  cut  off  a  leafy  branch 
from  a  growing  plant  and  put  it  in  a  warm  oven,  the 
leaves  and  stem  will  soon  become  much  smaller  and 
lighter  and  more  brittle.  This  is  because  the  water  which 
the  branch  contained  has  been  evaporated  by  the  heat. 
Often  more  than  four  fifths  of  the  weight  of  a  growing 
plant  is  water.  Hay  is  dried  grass.  The  farmer  cuts 
his  grass  and  lets  it  lie 
exposed  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun  until  most  of 
the  water  it  contained 
has  evaporated. 

Water  Necessary. — 
If  we  cut  off  two  bean 
seedlings  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground  and  put 
the  stem  of  one  into 
a  bottle  of  water  and 
that  of  the  other  into  an 

empty    bottle,    we    shall  ^'^^-  S-— Plants  need  water. 

find  that  the  leaves  of  the  seedling  that  we  put  in  the 
empty  bottle  will  soon  droop,  while  those  of  the  other 
will  remain  fresh.  (Figure  8.)  This  experiment 
teaches  some  important  things  about  plants.     First,  it 

G.  &M.  Ag.  2.  ly 


PLANTS  AND   WATER 


shows  that  the  leaves  of  plants  growing  in  a  rather  dry 
atmosphere  must  have  a  constant  supply  of  water,  or  they 
can  not  remain  fresh.  Second,  it  shows  that  the  water  is 
taken  in  through  the  stem.  Third,  it  shows  that,  in  uncut 
plants,  the  water  must  come  into  the  stem  from  the  root, 
because  our  stems  were  cut  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Evaporation  through  Leaves — If  we  fill  two  bottles 
of  the  same  size  with  water,  and  insert  in  the  neck  of  one 
of  them  several  small  twigs  from  a  growing  plant,  we 
shall  find  that  the  surface  of  the  water  will  lower  much 
faster  in  the  bottle  containing  the  twigs,  than  in  the  other 
bottle.  Where  has  this  water  gone?  If  now  we,  place 
a  cool  fruit  jar  over  the  twigs  and  hold  it  there  a  short 
time,  we  shall  be  able  to  answer  this  question.  Water 
from  the  leaves  will  gather  on  the  inside  of  the  glass,  so 
that  we  can  easily  see  it.  If  we  leave  the  jar  over  the 
twigs  for  half  an  hour,  drops  of  water  will  flow  down  its 
inside  surface.  This  shows  that 
some  of  the  water  taken  up  by  the 
roots  or  plants  passes  off,  or  trans- 
pires, through  the  leaves.  The  pass- 
ing oflf  of  moisture  from  the  leaves  of 
plants  is  called  transpiration. 

Leaves  do  not  Take  in  Water. — 
If  we  take  the  fresh  bean  plant  out 
of    the    water    and  put   one   of   its 
leaves  instead  of  the  stem  into  the 
Hi,  water,  we  shall  find  that  the  other 

r.G.  9- Leaves  do         ^^aves     soon     droop.       (Figure     9.) 

not  absorb  water.  fhig      shoWS      that      the      IcaveS      of 

the   bean   plant    can   not    take    in    much    water,    even 


PLANTS  AND    WATER  I9 

when  they  are  surrounded  by  it.  The  leaves  of  plants 
can  not  take  in  much  water,  either  from  water  or  from  moist 
air. 

Plants  Dry  the  Soil. —  The  total  area  of  the  leaf  surface 
of  a  growing  crop  is  much  larger  than  that  of  the  ground  on 
which  the  crop  grows;  and  therefore  soil  on  which  plants 
are  growing  dries  much  faster  than  the  same  kind  of  soil 
with  no  plants  growing  on  it.  The  soil  seldom  contains 
water  enough  in  dry  weather  to  supply  crops  with  all  they 
need.  Weeds  waste  valuable  water  in  dry  weather;  so  do 
the  hedges  of  underbrush  sometimes  allowed  to  grow  along 
fences.  The  farmer  and  the  gardener  should  constantly 
study  how  to  prevent  the  waste  of  soil  water  in  dry  weather. 
We  shall  learn  how  to  do  this  in  a  later  lesson. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  From  what  source  does  a  plant  get  its  water? 

2.  What  is  transpiration? 

3.  Why  does  a  soil  that  has  plants  growing  on  it  dry  out 
faster  than  the  same  kind  of  soil  without  plants? 

4.  Why  should  weeds  not  be  allowed  to  grow? 

5.  Perform  an  experiment  to  show  transpiration.  (See 
page  18.) 


4.     HOW  PLANTS  FEED. 


Illustrative  material:  Dissolve  a  bit  of  camphor  gum  in  a  small  bottle 
of  alcohol;  then  pour  a  part  of  the  solution  into  a  glass  sauce  dish,  and, 
when  the  alcohol  has  evaporated,  show  the  recovered  camphor.  (If  con- 
veniences for  boiling  water  are  at  hand,  a  solution  of  sugar  in  water  may 
be  used.) 

Burn  a  little  dry  hay  or  straw  on  a  plate,  in  the  presence  of  the  class, 
and  show  the  ashes.  Show  also  a  bit  of  starch,  and  a  piece  of  charcoal  to 
illustrate  carbon. 

Solutions — If  we 
put  a  teaspoonful  of 
sugar  into  a  glass 
of  water  and  then 
stir  the  water  with 
the  spoon,  the  sugar 
will  soon  pass  out  of 
sight.  We  say  it  has 
dissolved  in  the  wa- 
ter. We  explain  its 
disappearance  by 
supposing  that  i  t 
has  separated  into 
particles  that  are  too 
small  to  be  seen,  and 
that  these  particles 
have  entered  among 
the  particles  of  the 
water,  something  as  a  quart  of  peas  might  be  poured 
into  the  spaces  between  apples  in  a  peck  measure.     (Fig- 


FlG.   10." 


Diagram  showing  spaces  be- 
tween particles. 


HOW    PLANTS    FEED  21 

ure  lo.)  If  now  we  evaporate  the  water  from  the  glass, 
the  sugar  will  again  appear  in  the  bottom. 

Mineral  Matter  in  Plants. — A  tea-kettle  in  which  well 
water  is  often  boiled  usually  becomes  coated  inside  with 
a  whitish  deposit.  Well  water  contains  small  quantities 
of  certain  mineral  substances  dissolved  in  it.  When  the 
water  evaporates  from  the  tea-kettle  by  boiling,  these 
minerals  remain  in  the  bottom,  just  as  in  our  experiment 
the  sugar  remained  in  the  basin  after  the  water  evaporated. 
We  learned  in  Lesson  3  that  plants  take  up  water,  and 
that  this  water  passes  off  as  vapor  from  the  leaves.  The 
water  thus  taken  up  by  plants  comes  out  of  the  soil  and 
so  has  certain  mineral  substances  dissolved  in  it.  When 
this  water  is  transpired  from  the  leaves,  the  minerals 
remain,  just  as  they  remain  in  the  tea-kettle  when  the 
water  evaporates  from  it.  Some  of  these  mineral  sub- 
stances are  required  by  the  plant  for  food.  Aside  from 
water,  the  roots  can  take  only  dissolved  substances. 

Other  Matter  in  Plants — We  have  now  learned  how 
plants  secure  the  mineral  part  of  their  food.  But  are 
plants  formed  entirely  of  mineral  matter?  We  can 
answer  this  question  by  a  simple  experiment.  Mineral 
matter  will  not  burn.  If  we  burn  a  little  bunch  of  hay  or 
straw,  the  part  that  will  not  burn,  the  ashes,  is  mineral 
matter.  The  ashes  of  the  hay  were  brought  up  from  the 
soil  in  the  water  that  was  taken  up  by  the  grass  roots. 
When  we  burn  a  substance,  we  separate  it  to  some  extent 
into  the  parts  that  once  came  together  to  make  the  sub- 
stance. Nearly  all  of  the  part  of  the  hay  that  passes 
off  into  the  air  in  burning  came  out  of  the  air  while 
the  grass  was  growing. 


22  HOW  PLANTS  FEED 

Carbon  from  the  Air. — It  seems  strange  that  a  part 
of  the  grass  could  come  out  of  the  air.  We  can  see  the 
mineral  matter  left  in  the  bottom  of  the  tea-kettle,  and 
so  can  easily  believe  that  the  soil  water  contains  mineral 
matter.  But  we  can  not  see  the  air,  and  it  is  hard  to 
understand  how  matter  can  come  out  of  the  air  to  make 
a  plant  that  we  can  see,  handle  and  weigh.  But,  just 
as  the  soil  water  has  solid  mineral  matter  dissolved  in  it, 
so  the  air  has  a  gas  called  carbon  dioxide  mixed  with  it. 
This  gas  is  formed  of  two  substances:  carbon,  which  is  a 
solid  that  we  can  see  and  handle;  and  oxygen,  a  gas  that 
we  can  not  see.  When  the  oxygen  is  taken  out  of  the 
carbon  dioxide,  the  solid  carbon  is  left,  just  as  when  the 
water  is  taken  out  of  the  sugar  solution  the  solid  sugar 
is  left. 

Chlorophyll  with  the  Sun  making  Starch. — The  car- 
bon dioxide  enters  the  leaves  of  plants  through  very  small 
openings.  It  then  enters  the  cells  and  comes  in  contact 
with  a  substance  called  chlorophyll,  which  is  the  green 
coloring  matter  of  the  leaves.  Here  a  wonderful  change 
takes  place.  When  the  sun  is  shining,  the  carbon  dioxide 
and  a  part  of  the  water  that  the  cells  contain  are  decom- 
posed,— that  is,  they  are  separated  into  the  parts  that  form 
them.  Some  of  these  parts,  including  the  carbon,  then 
unite  again  and  form  a  new  substance  that  is  very  different 
from  either  the  carbon  dioxide  or  the  water.  This  new 
substance  is  starch,  or  something  of  very  similar  compo- 
sition. (Figure  ii.)  It  may  be  formed  in  any  part  of 
the  plant  that  is  green, — that  is,  in  any  part  which  has 
cells  that  contain  chlorophyll.  But  it  is  formed  chiefly 
in  the  leaves. 


HOW    PLANTS   FEED 


23 


Food  of  Plant  Made  in  Leaves — This  starch  or  lilce 
substance  formed  in  the  leaves,  together  with  some  of  the 
mineral  matters  brought  up  in  the  soil  water,  serves  as 
food  for  the  protoplasm  of  the  cells,  so  that  the  cells 


Fig.   II. —  Illustrating  the  formation  of  starch. 

increase  in  number  rapidly  and  thus  cause  the  plant  to 
grow.  The  cells  in  all  parts  of  the  plant,  including  the 
farthest  root  tips,  are  fed  by  this  leaf-formed  food.     It 


24  HOW  PLANTS   FEED 

follows  that  the  health  of  the  plant  depends  upon  the 
health  of  its  leaves. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  How  do  plants  take  in  the  mineral  part  of  their  food? 

2.  What  food  materials  do  plants  obtain  from  the  air? 

3.  Tell  how  a  plant  makes  starch. 

4.  Why  will  a  plant  die  if  its  leaves  are  removed  during 
the  growing  season? 

5.  Explain  why  the  grass  underneath  a  board  or  flat 
stone  turns  white  in  a  few  days. 

6.  Name  several  plants  that  suffer  because  their  leaves 
are  destroyed  by  insects. 


5.    HOW  PLANTS  GROW. 

Illustrative  material:  Specimens  from  parts  of  living  plants 
illustrating  the  root,  stem,  buds,  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit  or 
seed. 

Root  Downward,  Stem  Upward. —  Figure  1 2  shows 
a  young  plant  of  Indian  corn.  It  grew  from  the  kernel 
to  which  it  is  attached.  Two  tiny  shoots 
grew  from  the  kernel.  One  of  these  grew 
down  into  the  dark,  damp  soil  to  become  the 
root;  the  other  grew  up  into  the  light  to  be- 
come the  stem.  Every  seed  when  it  ger- 
minates,—  that  is,  when  it  begins  to  grow, — 
sends  out  two  shoots,  one  of  which  tends  down- 
ward, and  the  other,  upward.  During  the  life 
of  the  plant,  the  stem  and  root  that  start  in 
the  seed  normally  continue  to  grow  by  the  di- 
vision and  growth  of  certain  groups  of  cells 
near  their  tips. 

Root  Hairs — Figure  13  shows  some  very  pilntiet'^ 
young  radish  plants  that  were  grown  in  a  seed 
tester.  Notice  that  each  tiny  white  root  that  grew  from 
the  seed  is  clothed  with  a  downy  fringe  that  looks  like 
the  finest  silk.  These  delicate  fibers  are  called  root 
hairs,  and  they  take  up  water  for  the  plant.  The  young 
roots  of  most  plants  are  clothed  with  root  hairs.  These 
draw  in  water  from  the  soil  with  a  certain  amount  of 
force.     This  force,  aided  by  some  other  forces,  causes  the 

25 


26  HOW  PLANTS  GROW 

water  to  rise  through  the  stem  and  to  supply  all  the  cells 

with  water  and  with  food. 

The  Stem. — The  stem  bears  the 
leaves,  buds,  flowers,  and  fruit  or 
seeds.  In  upright-growing  plants, 
the  stem  supports  these  parts  at 
some  distance  above  the  earth; 
sometimes,  as  in  the  grape-vine,  the 
stem  climbs  upon  other  objects  for 
support;  sometimes,  as  in  the  mel- 
on, it  creeps  on  the  ground;  in 
other  plants,  as  the  potato  and  quack 
grass,  it  may  even  grow  in  part  un- 
derground.     (Figure    14.)      As    we 

Fig.  13.— Young  radish     havc  learned  in  Lesson  -i,  the  stem 

plants.  ^ ' 

is  the  channel  through  which  the 
food  prepared  in  the  leaves  passes  to  the  roots. 

The  Leaves. — The  leaves  grow  out  from  the  stem  at 
regular  places.  If  we  hold  a  leaf  toward  the  light,  and 
place  a  finger  behind  it,  we  find  that  the  light  can  pass 
through  the  leaf.  As  we  learned  in  Lesson  4,  the  sun- 
light shining  through  the  leaf  cells  prepares  the  food 
for  the  cells  of  the  whole  plant.  The  cells  of  the  leaf 
are  arranged  in  thin  plates  to  expose  a  very  large  number 
of  them  to  the  action  of  the  sunlight.  (See  Figure  11.) 
The  cell  walls  are  transparent  as  glass.  The  leaves  look 
green  because  their  cells  contain  green  chlorophyll. 

Leaves  Necessary. — We  learned  in  Lesson  4  that  the 
health  of  the  plant  depends  much  upon  the  health  of  its 
leaves.  If  the  leaves  are  eaten  by  insects,  or  if  they  are 
picked  off  or  broken,   they  can  not  prepare  food,   and 


HOW  PLANTS   GROW 


27 


U^t. 


the  cells  of  the  root  will  not  be  so  well  fed;  then  the  root 
can  not  grow  so  fast,  and  so  can  not  absorb  so  much 
water  for  the  leaves, 
so  the  whole  plant 
must  grow  more  slow- 
ly. If,  from  any 
cause,  the  leaves  do 
not  receive  their  full 
share  of  sunlight,  they 
can  not  prepare  their 
amount  of  food,  and 
the  plant  will 
suffer.  The 
leaves  of  our 
plants  should 
be  protected 
from  harm. 

Buds. —  Ev- 
ery live  part  of 
a  stem  termin- 
ates in  a  hud.  (Figure  15.)  If  a  part  of  the 
stem  is  growing,  the  bud  at  its  tip  is  not  well  de- 
fined. But  on  stems  that  live  through  winter, 
when  growth  ceases,  the  buds  are  covered  with 
scales,  which  usually  render  them  easily  seen. 
Buds  inclosed  in  scales  are  called  dormant  buds. 
In  woody  stems,  a  dormant  bud  commonly  forms 
in  summer  just  above  the  base  of  each  leaf. 
^'Buds!~When  the  leaves  drop  in  autumn,  the  buds  re- 
main. On  the  return  of  spring,  they  expand  into  new 
leaves  or  sometimes  into  flowers.     The  bud  at  the  end 


Fig.  14. —  Potato  plant.  U.  St.,  under- 
ground stems.  R,  roots.  The  tubers 
are  the  thickened  ends  of  the  under- 
ground   stems.     Much    reduced. 


28  HOW    PLANTS  GROW 

of  the  branch  is  called  the  terminal  bud.  This  usually 
expands  first.  It  either  forms  a  flower,  and  dies,  or  it 
continues  the  growth  of  the  stem.  The  lateral  (side) 
buds,  if  they  expand,  either  open  into  flowers,  and  die,  or 
they  develop  into  branches. 

Seeds. — In  plants  that  live  through  winter,  the  flowers 
are  commonly  formed  in  the  buds  the  season  before  they 
expand.  Many  flowers  are  among  the  most  beautiful  and 
fragrant  of  natural  objects.  They  delight  us  with  their 
colors,  their  perfume,  their  freshness,  their  delicacy,  and 
their  graceful  forms.  But  the  flowers  have  other  uses 
than  to  please  the  senses.  By  means  of  their  flowers, 
plants  are  able  to  form  the  fruits  and  seeds  we  prize  so 
much  for  food.  Without  seeds,  many  kinds  of  plants 
would  soon  pass  away,  for  there  would  be  no  more  little 
plants  to  take  the  places  of  those  that  die. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Where  is  the  growing  portion  of  a  root?    Of  a  stem? 

2.  How  do  root  hairs  help  the  plant  to  grow?  Where  are 
they  found? 

3.  Name  some  stems  that  grow  partly  underground. 

4.  Why  are  the  cells  of  a  leaf  arranged  in  thin  plates? 
Why  are  the  cell  walls  transparent? 

5.  What  gives  the  green  color  to  leaves? 

6.  When  and  where  are  dormant  buds  formed  in  woody 
stems?    When  do  they  open? 

7.  Split  lengthwise  a  large  terminal  bud  of  the  lilac  or 
of  some  other  plant  and  see  what  you  can  find  inside. 


6.    THE  IDEAL  SOIL. 

Illustrative  material:  Jars  or  boxes  containing  black  garden 
loam,  clay,  and  sand.  Mix  a  small  proportion  of  sand  with  the 
clay  to  make  a  clay  loam.  Mix  a  large  proportion  of  sand  with 
the  clay  to  make  a  sandy  loam.  Pour  water  on  each  kind  of 
soil,  and  have  the  pupils  note  how  rapidly  it  soaks  through  in 
each  case  and  also  the  effect  ahpr  it  has  dried. 

Soil  a  Reservoir  for  Water. —  We  learned  from  Lesson 
3  that  plants  transpire  much  water  from  their  leaves, — 
water  that  has  been  taken  up  by  their  roots.  The  roots 
must  get  from  the  soil  as  much  water  as  they  need  or 
the  plants  can  not  thrive.  The  soil  receives  its  water 
from  rains  and  snows,  and  these  fall  at  irregular  intervals. 
The  ideal  soil,  therefore,  must  serve  as  a  reservoir  to 
receive  and  hold  enough  of  the  rain  and  the  snow  water 
to  supply  the  needs  of  crops. 

Soil  Must  Be  Porous — We  learned  in  Lesson  4  that 
living  cells  require  air  as  well  as  food.  The  live  roots 
of  plants  consist  of  living  cells,  not  one  of  which  can  live 
long  without  air.  The  ideal  soil  must,  therefore,  be 
porous  enough  to  admit  all  the  air  the  roots  require. 
Rootlets  will  not  grow  in  clumps  or  clods  that  are  so 
compact  that  air  can  not  enter  them.  It  seems  strange 
that  the  soil  can  supply  the  roots  of  plants  with  both  water 
and  air  at  the  same  time.  A  soil  in  proper  condition  for 
the  rapid  growth  of  roots  may  be  compared  to  a  wet 
sponge  with  air  circulating  through  its  pores,  while  the 
substance  of  the  sponge  contains  much  water. 

29 


3° 


THE    IDEAL    SOIL 


Air  and  Water  in  Soil — Figure  i6  will  help  us  to 
understand  how  the  roots  of  plants  are  supplied  with  both 
water  and  air.  The  roots  of  most  farm  and  garden 
crops  grow  fastest  just  at  the  bottom  of  the  layer  of  soil 
that  is  turned  by  the  plow.  The  soil  above  this  point 
is  better  supplied  with  air  than  that  below,  while  the 
subsoil,  which  is  the  part  below  this  point,  is  better  sup- 
plied with  water  than  that  above.  The  place  where  the 
plowed  soil  rests  on  the  subsoil  is,  therefore,  best  supplied 
with  both  air  and  water. 


'\  lie  drain 
Fig.    i6. — Water   in  the  soil. 

Kinds  of  Soil. — ^A  soil  made  up  of  particles  so  fine  that 
they  can  be  seen  only  with  a  microscope  is  called  a  clay 
soil.  It  is  sticky  when  wet  and  is  apt  to  "bake,"  or  harden, 
on  drying.  A  clay  soil  can  be  unproved  by  manuring,  by 
the  addition  of  sand  or  ashes,  and  sometimes  by  the  use 
of  lime.  A  soil  made  up  largely  of  particles  of  sand  is 
called  a  sandy  soil.  It  dries  out  rapidly  and  is  not  sticky. 
A  silt  soil  is  made  up  of  particles  halfway  between  clay  and 
sand  in  fineness.  Most  farm  and  garden  soils  consist 
mainly  of  a  mixture  of  clay,  silt,  and  sand.  Such  a  soil 
is  called  a  loam.  The  best  soil  for  growing  crops  contains 
sand  enough  to  let  surplus  water  move  downward,  and 
clay  enough  to  hold  sufficient  water  for  the  use  of  crops. 

Drainage  Necessary. — If  the  pores  of  a  soil  remained 


THE  IDEAL   SOIL  3 1 

filled  with  water  a  long  time  after  rain,  the  air  would 
be  forced  out  and  the  roots  of  the  crop  growing  on  the 
land  might  be  smothered.  The  ideal  soil  must,  therefore, 
be  well  drained,  so  that  its  pores  will  not  long  remain 
filled  with  water  even  in  wet  weather.  This  means  that 
the  subsoil  must  permit  the  surplus  water  to  pass  through 
it  rather  easily. 

Tiling. — Soils  over  a  subsoil  containing  too  much  clay 
dry  out  slowly  in  spring,  and  after  heavy  rains.  Such 
soils  may  often  be  improved  hy  draining, — that  is,  by 
providing  ways  for  the  surplus  water  to  flow  off.  Ditches, 
connecting  with  an  outlet  on  lower  ground,  may  be  dug 
through  the  land.  Brick  tubes  called  tiles  are  often 
buried  in  such  ditches,  and  the  surplus  water  flows  out 
through  these.  (See  Figure  i6.)  There  are  spaces  between 
the  ends  of  the  tiles,  through  which  the  water  enters. 
Sometimes  brush  or  stones  are  used  in  place  of  tiles.  Lands 
thus  drained  are  often  among  the  best  for  farming. 

Plant  Food  in  Soil. — We  learned  from  Lesson  4  that, 
with  the  exception  of  carbon,  the  food  of  plants  comes  from 
the  soil,  and  that  it  is  dissolved  in  the  soil  water.  If  the 
soil  does  not  contain  food  enough,  the  plants  can  not 
grow  well,  even  though  they  have  everything  else  that 
they  need.  The  ideal  soil  must  have  sufficient  plant  food 
in  a  form  that  can  dissolve  in  water  to  supply  the  needs  of 
crops  grown  upon  it.  In  the  next  three  lessons,  we  shall 
learn  about  supplying  the  soil  with  plant  food. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

I.  Why  must  the  soil  be  porous  in  order  to  make  plants 
grow? 


32  THE   IDEAL   SOIL 

2.  Why  do  the  roots  of  most  farm  and  garden  crops 
grow  most  rapidly  just  at  the  bottom  of  the  layer  of  soil 
that  is  turned  over  by  the  plow? 

3.  Name  the  most  important  kinds  of  soil.  Collect 
samples  of  each  in  your  home  locaUty. 

4.  Why  do  some  soils  need  draining?  How  are  soils 
drained? 

5.  How  does  water  enter  drain  tiles? 

6.  What  kind  of  soil  is  most  affected  by  a  drought? 

7.  Tile  drains  near  willow  trees  are  often  clogged  by  the 
many  roots  that  enter  them.    What  do  the  roots  seek? 

8.  What  conditions  make  an  ideal  soil? 


7.     HOW  TO  KEEP  THE  SOIL  FERTILE. 

Illustrative  material:  Two  jars  or  dishes,  rain  water,  well  water, 
two  small  pieces  of  gauze,  and  a  few  kernels  of  wheat.  A  small 
sample  each  of  nitrate  of  soda  (Chile  saltpeter),  phosphoric  acid, 
and  caustic  potash,  illustrating  common  forms  in  which  these  sub- 
stances are  used  by  plants.  These  substances  may  be  purchased  at 
a  drug  store. 

How  to  Make  the  Land  Poor. —  If  we  dissolve  an  ounce 
of  sugar  in  a  glass  of  water,  and  then  dip  out  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  the  solution,  of  course  we  take  out  a  part  of  the 
sugar.  We  learned  in  Lesson  4  that  plants  take  up  soil 
water  containing  dissolved  mineral  matters.  Now,  if 
these  plants  are  taken  off  the  land  on  which  they  are 
growing,  the  soil  can  not  contain  so  much  soluble  mineral 
matter  as  it  contained  before.  If  we  continue  to  raise 
crops  on  the  land,  and  to  take  them  off  and  sell  them 
without  returning  any  soluble  mineral  matter  to  the  soil, 
the  soil  will  soon  become  "  poor," —  that  is,  there  will 
not  remain  enough  of  some  mineral  matters  to  feed  plants 
well. 

Certain  Food  Required  by  Plants. — When  a  painter 
wishes  to  prepare  some  paint  to  match  a  particular  shade 
of  color,  he  mixes  a  certain  amount  of  paint  of  two  or 
more  colors;  if  he  uses  a  larger  or  a  sinaller  quantity 
of  one  of  these  colors,  or  if  he  adds  another  color  he  does 
not  get  the  tint  he  desires.  It  is  just  so  when  Mother 
Nature  builds  up  a  wheat  plant ;  she  uses  certain  amounts 
of  a  definite  number  of  materials  from  the  soil,  and  can 

G.  &  M.  Ag.  3.  33 


34 


HOW    TO    KEEP    SOIL    FERTILE 


not  vary  these  amounts  much,  nor  can  she  use  one  ma- 
terial instead  of  another.  When  the  carpenters  that  are 
building  a  house  run  out  of  nails,  their  work  must  stop 
until  more  nails  are  provided;  or,  if  they  try  to  make 

their  nails  hold  out  by 
using  less  than  the 
usual  number,  the 
house  will  not  be  strong 
and  may  be  blown 
down  by  the  first  hard 
wind.  Just  so,  if  one 
of  the  soil  materials 
that  go  to  make  up  a 
plant  runs  short,  the 
plant  must  stop  grow- 
ing, or  the  growth 
made  will  be  unhealthy, 
and  the  plant  will  fail 
from  disease. 

Soil  Water  Holds 
Plant  Food —  Figure 
17  shows  some  wheat 
plants  growing  in  wa- 
ter in  two  jars.  The 
right-hand  jar  contains 
rain  water,  and  the  left- 
hand  jar  contains  well 
water, —  that  is,  water  that  has  come  out  of  the  soil. 
Rain  water  has  almost  nothing  dissolved  in  it,  because, 
when  water  evaporates  into  the  air,  the  dissolved  ma- 
terials it  contained  are  left  behind.     In  this  experiment, 


Fig.  17. —  Plants  growing  In  water. 


HOW    TO    KEEP    SOIL    FERTILE  35 

the  water  in  both  jars  was  boiled  before  being  put  in. 
The  rain  water  was  boiled  to  drive  off  the  gases  it  had 
taken  from  the  air,  and  the  well  water  was  boiled  to  evap- 
orate a  part  of  the  water  and  thus  to  make  stronger  the 
solution  of  mineral  matters  it  contained.  From  the 
picture,  we  see  that  the  plants  in  the  jar  containing 
the  well  water  are  growing  faster  than  those  in  the 
other  jar.  This  is  because  the  well  water  contains 
in  solution  the  materials  that  the  wheat  plant  needs  for 
food.  The  rain  water,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  al- 
most no  food  material.  The  only  reason  the  plants  can 
grow  in  the  rain  water  at  all  is  that  the  seed  contains  a 
small  amount  of  food.  When  this  food  is  used  up,  the 
plants  will  soon  starve. 

Make-up  of  Rich  Soil. —  Chemists  have  found  that 
certain  quantities  of  about  a  dozen  different  materials 
are  used  by  plants  for  food.  The  one  that  is  used  in 
largest  proportion  is  carbon,  and,  as  we  learned  in  Lesson 
4,  this  comes  from  the  air.  All  the  others  come  from  the 
soil.  But  of  all  the  substances  that  come  from  the  soil, 
only  three  often  run  short;  most  soils  contain  a  large 
surplus  of  all  the  others.  The  three  that  often  fail  are 
called  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  These  are 
the  only  substances,  then,  that  the  farmer  or  gardener 
needs  to  put  on  his  land  often  to  keep  it  "  rich," —  that 
is,  to  give  it  all  it  needs  to  produce  good  crops ;  and,  since 
of  these  nitrogen  is  most  often  lacking,  it  must  be  sup- 
plied most  generously  to  the  soil. 

Manure — When  plants  of  any  kind  grow  on  the  land, 
they  take  out  of  the  soil  what  they  need  for  food.  If  we 
put  these  plants  back  on  the  land  and  let  them  decay, 


^6  HOW    TO    KEEP    SOIL    FERTILE 

they  return  to  the  soil  the  plant  food  they  took  from  it  in 
growing.  Almost  all  plant  material,  therefore,  is  good 
to  put  on  the  ground  to  make  it  rich  or  fertile.  Since 
animals  grow  by  eating  plants,  or  by  eating  other  animals 
that  grew  by  eating  plants,  most  animal  matter  is  also 
good  to  fertilize  the  land.  Manure,  which  is  decaying 
plant  or  animal  matter  from  barnyards,  stables,  slaughter 
houses,  etc.,  is  the  most  common  material  used  to  fertilize 
the  soil. 

Wood  Ashes. — Wood  ashes  contain  the  mineral  mat- 
ters that  the  trees  from  which  the  wood  was  obtained 
took  from  the  soil  when  they  grew.  Wood  ashes,  there- 
fore, are  valuable  for  making  the  soil  fertile.  If  they 
have  not  been  leached, —  that  is,  if  they  have  not  been 
exposed  to  water,  they  contain  much  potash  and  some 
phosphoric  acid,  but  no  nitrogen.  If  they  have  been 
leached,  the  potash  has  been  mostly  washed  out. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. —  In  some  parts  of  the  world, 
deposits  are  found  that  are  rich  in  nitrogen,  in  phosphoric 
acid,  or  in  potash,  and  those  materials  are  mined  for  fer- 
tilizers of  the  soil.  Some  manufacturing  establishments 
have  waste  products  that  are  useful  as  fertilizers.  We 
can,  therefore,  buy  fertilizers  in  the  market  as  we  can  buy 
coal'  or  lime.  But  commercial  fertilizers,  as  such  fertiliz- 
ers are  called,  are  rarely  so  cheap  or  so  good  for  the  soil  as 
manure  is,  hence  it  is  best  for  the  farmer  and  gardener 
to  depend,  as  far  as  possible,  on  manure  to  enrich  their 
soil. 

Applying  Fertilizers. — Farm  manures  give  best  results 
when  applied  frequently  in  small  amounts,  not  over  eight 
tons  to  the  acre.    Heavy  applications  of  manure  on  soils 


HOW   TO   KEEP   SOIL  FERTILE  37 

rich  in  organic  matter  often  cause  grains  to  lodge,  or  "go 
down,"  badly.  This  is  due  to  too  much  ready  nitrogen, 
which  causes  a  rank  growth.  Manure  never  injures  corn 
by  causing  too  rank  a  growth;  and  grains,  such  as  wheat  or 
oats,  may  follow  the  corn  the  next  year  with  little  danger 
of  lodging.  Most  soils  contain  so  great  a  supply  of  potash 
that  it  can  hardly  be  exhausted.  Nitrogen  can  be  replaced 
by  growing  legumes.  (See  Chapter  9.)  The  phosphorus 
supply,  which  is  most  apt  to  give  out  in  average  soils,  can 
be  added  most  economically  by  using  raw  rock  phosphate. 
One  ton  of  the  rock  phosphate  to  an  acre  will  supply  all 
the  phosphorus  that  the  crops  will  need  for  more  than  ten 
years. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  do  we  mean  when  we  say  that  a  soil  is  "poor"? 

2.  What  three  substances  are  often  lacking  in  soils? 

3.  What  substances  are  supplied  to  the  soil  by  adding 
wood  ashes?  Which  one  is  easily  removed  from  wood  ashes 
by  leaching? 

4.  Why  do  grain  crops  lodge  on  ''rich"  soils? 

5.  Which  farmer  will  have  the  ''richer"  soil,  the  one 
who  grows  grain  and  hay  and  sells  them  off  the  farm,  or 
the  one  who  feeds  these  crops  to  cattle  and  places  all  the 
manure  upon  the  soil? 

6.  When  manure  is  left  exposed  to  rains,  it  loses  about 
one-half  of  its  value  in  six  months.  On  a  farm  in  which 
100  tons  of  manure  is  produced,  what  would  be  the  conse- 
quent loss,  if  the  manure  is  worth  $2.30  a  ton? 


234612 


8.     HUMUS  IN  THE  SOIL. 

Illustrative  material:  A  small  quantity  each  of  clay,  sand, 
and  leaf  mold.  Swamp  muck  or  dark-colored  garden  soil  may 
be  substituted  for  the  leaf  mold,  if  the  latter  can  not  con- 
veniently be  obtained. 

Humus  Defined —  If  we  dig  up  the  ground  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  hollow  in  the  woods  where  the  leaves  have  gath- 
ered and  decayed  for  centuries,  we  find  the  soil  there  very 
dark-colored  and  very  porous.  It  is  dark-colored  be- 
cause it  consists  almost  entirely  of  humus,  a  substance 
that  is  always  formed  where  vegetable  matter  decays  in 
the  soil.  Humus  is  the  vegetable  or  animal  matter  in 
which  the  process  of  decay  is  well  advanced,  but  not  com- 
plete. 

Black  Soil. — The  prairie  lands  of  the  United  States  are 
very  rich  in  humus,  because  the  prairie  grasses  grew  and 
decayed  on  them  for  centuries  before  they  were  used  for 
farming.  The  soil  of  marshes  is  usually  very  dark-col- 
ored, because,  like  the  leaf  mold  of  the  woods,  it  consists 
largely  of  humus.  Whenever  a  farmer  or  gardener  adds 
vegetable  or  animal  matter  to  his  soil,  and  permits  it  to 
decay  there,  he  makes  his  soil  richer  in  humus.  The 
more  often  a  soil  is  manured  with  such  matter,  the  darker 
colored  it  is  as  a  rule. 

Humus  Helps  Growth  of  Plants —  Humus  in  the  soil 
helps  the  growth  of  plants  in  several  ways :  it  enables  the 
soil  to  hold  more  water  than  it  otherwise  would ;  it  tends 

38 


HUMUS   IN    THE  SOIL  39 

to  prevent  the  surface  of  the  soil  from  baking ;  it  absorbs 
ammonia  (which  contains  nitrogen)  from  the  air,  and 
thus  aids  in  fertiHzing  the  soil;  it  also  serves  to  some 
extent  as  plant  food. 

Cropping  Land —  When  land  is  cropped  year  after  year 
without  being  manured,  it  loses  much  of  its  humus,  as 
well  as  much  of  its  mineral  plant  food.  Such  a  soil  is 
said  to  be  "  run  down  "  and  it  rarely  produces  good  crops. 
It  can  be  restored  to  a  fertile  condition  only  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  humus  and  the  plant  food  that  it  lacks. 
This  may  cost  for  a  time  as  much  as  the  crops  from  the 
land  are  worth.  It  is,  therefore,  very  unwise  to  crop 
land  long  without  restoring  the  humus  and  the  plant  food 
that  are  removed  in  the  crops. 

The  Best  Fertilizer. — The  best  way  for  the  farmer  or 
gardener  to  supply  his  land  with  humus  is  to  use  plenty 
of  stable  or  barnyard  manure.  Not  only  does  this  ma- 
terial produce  humus,  but,  in  its  early  stages  of  decay, 
it  absorbs  some  water  from  the  air,  and,  as  this  water 
contains  ammonia,  it  adds  some  nitrogen  to  the  soil  from 
the  air.  It  also  tends  to  warm  the  soil,  for  it  gives  out 
heat  in  decaying  and  also  absorbs  some  heat  from  the  air. 

Plowing  Crops  Under. — Another  way  of  adding  humus 
to  the  soil  is  by  plowing  under  unharvested  crops,  such 
as  clover,  rye,  turnips,  or  buckwheat.  This  is  often  a 
cheaper  way  of  supplying  the  soil  with  humus  than  put- 
ting on  stable  manure,  but,  except  in  the  case  of  clover 
(Lesson  9),  these  crops  do  not  add  fertility  to  the  soil, 
because  they  take  as  much  plant  food  out  of  the  soil  as 
they  return  to  it.  They  are,  therefore,  less  valuable  than 
stable  manure. 


40  HUMUS  IN   THE   SOIL 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  is  humus?    In  what  ways  does  humus  improve 
the  soil? 

2.  What  is  the  color  of  a  soil  that  is  rich  in  humus? 

3.  How  can  humiis  be  added  to  the  soil?    What  is  the 
best  source  of  humus? 

4.  Why  does  a  soil  that  has  an  abundance  of  humus 
absorb  more  heat  from  the  sun  than  a  soil  low  in  humus? 

5.  Under  what  conditions  might  it  be  profitable  to  plow 
under  a  crop  of  rye  as  a  green  manure? 


9.     HOW  LEGUMES  HELP  THE  FARMER. 

Illustrative  material:  Plant  not  over  one  fourth  of  an  inch 
deep  in  moist  garden  soil  in  a  fruit  jar,  two  or  three  hundred 
seeds  of  common  red  clover.  Screw  on  the  cap  loosely,  and 
place  the  jar  in  a  warm  place.  When  the  plants  are  well  grown, 
fill  the  jar  with  water  and  let  it  stand  until  the  soil  is  thoroughly 
soaked;  then  gently  draw  the  plants  out  so  as  to  injure  the  roots 
as  little  as  possible.  Pass  the  plants  about  the  class,  and  let  the 
pupils  find  the  swellings  on  the  roots. 

Clover  a  Fertilizer —  Nearly  every  boy  and  girl  knows 
the  clover  plant,  with  its  three  (rarely  four)  oval  leaflets 
and  its  pretty  red  or  white  blossoms.  They  know,  too, 
that  all  farm  animals  are  fond  of  clover,  both  fresh  and 
made  into  hay.  The  intelligent  farmer  knows  that  the 
clover  plant  is  valuable  not  only  for  pasture  and  hay,  but 
also  as  a  fertilizer  of  the  soil. 

Clover  Takes  Nitrogen  from  the  Air. —  Figure  i8 
shows  a  young  clover  plant.  By  looking  closely  at  the 
picture,  we  may  see  little  swellings  or  knobs  on  the 
larger  roots.  While  these  knobs,  or  tubercles,  as  they 
are  called,  are  not  so  pretty  as  the  leaf  or  the  flower,  they 
are  full  of  interest  to  the  educated  farmer,  for  they  serve 
as  minute  laboratories  for  the  manufacture  of  nitric  acid 
in  the  soil,  and  thus  they  supply  the  plant  with  nitrogen, 
the  most  important  kind  of  plant  food. 

Nitrates. — The  housekeeper  can  not  make  bread  out  of 
unground  wheat,  however  much  she  may  have  of  it.  The 
grain  must  first  be  ground  and  sifted,  and  then  the  fine 

41 


42 


HOW  LEGUMES  HELP  THE  FARMER 


flour,  when  combined  with  yeast,  will  make  good  bread. 
About  four  fifths  of  the  air  consists  of  nitrogen,  but,  just 
as  the  unground  wheat  cannot  be  used  for  bread,  so  this 
nitrogen  can  not  be  used  directly  by  plants  as  food  because 
it  is  not  in  the  right  form.     The  nitrogen  must  first  unite 

with  certain  substances 
in  the  soil  and  form  what 
are  called  nitrates  before 
the  plant  can  use  it  for 
food. 

Surplus  of  Nitrates. — 
The  little  swellings  on 
the  clover  root  serve  as 
houses  in  which  live 
swarms  of  minute  beings 
t  called  bacteria  that 
change  the  nitrogen  of 
the  air  into  nitrates. 
These  not  only  supply 
the  clover  plant  on  which 
they  live  with  the  ni- 
trates it  needs  for  food, 
but  they  furnish  more 
than  the  plant  needs,  and 
so   make   the   soil   more 

F,G.    ,8.-Tubercles  on   clover  roots.  f^j.^.^^  ^^^^       Jf       ^^^ 

farmer  mows  down  the  clover  and  uses  it  for  hay,  or  if 
his  cattle  eat  it  off,  the  soil  will  be  richer  in  nitrates  than 
it  was  before  the  clover  was  planted. 

Potash  Needed — The  young  clover  plants  begin  to 
supply  nitrates  to  the  soil  when  they  have  been  growing 


HOW  LEGUMES  HELP  THE  FARMER         43 

for  a  few  days,  and  continue  to  do  so  as  long  as  they 
continue  to  grow.  Clover  does  not,  however,  enrich  the 
soil  with  any  kind  of  plant  food  except  nitrates.  If  we 
continue  to  grow  clover  on  the  land  and  to  remove  the 
crop  every  year,  the  land  is  likely  to  become  poor  in  pot- 
ash and  phosphoric  acid,  unless  we  add  these  to  the  soil. 
Unleached  wood  ashes  used  on  clover  land  would  supply 
all  the  food  materials  needed  by  the  common  farm  crops. 

Other  Plants  Similar  to  Clover. —  Clover  is  not  the 
only  plant  that  yields  nitrates  from  the  swellings  on  its 
roots.  A  class  of  plants  called  legumes,  such  as  peas, 
beans,  vetches,  lentils,  and  alfalfa,  do  the  same.  Crops 
that  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil  are  often  called  nitrogen 
gatherers.  These  crops  are  very  useful  to  the  farmer,  be- 
cause they  supply  the  soil  with  the  most  important  kind 
of  plant  food,  and  thus,  to  some  extent,  they  take  the 
place  of  manure,  of  which  farmers  are  almost  always 
in  need. 

Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  can  be  grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  country.  It  is  particularly  valuable  in  regions  not  well 
supplied  with  water.  The  plant  lives  on  from  year  to  year 
and  makes  bountiful  crops  of  hay  as  well  as  permanent 
pastures.  Swellings  or  tubercles  are  found  on  the  roots 
of  this  plant  as  well  as  on  the  clover  plant,  and  it  enriches 
the  soil  in  the  same  way. 

Cowpea. — The  cowpea  is  neither  a  pea  nor  a  bean, 
but  resembles  both  plants  in  some  ways.  This  plant  is 
sometimes  called  the  great  restorer  because  it  restores  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other 
plant.  It  is  a  legume  and  is  especially  valuable  in  the 
South,  where  it  takes  the  place  of  clover. 


44  HOW  LEGUMES   HELP   THE   FARMER 

Nitrogen  Gatherers  Make  Rich  Land. — The  farmer 
should  frequently  grow  clover,  or  some  other  nitrogen- 
gathering  crop,  on  his  land.  Land  from  which  a  crop  is 
harvested  at  midsummer,  and  which  will  not  be  needed 
until  the  following  spring,  may  often  better  be  sown  to 
clover  than  left  idle.  As  a  rule,  the  farmers  that  grow 
and  feed  the  most  clover  have  the  most  fertile  farms.  The 
clover  plant  should  be  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  good  luck 
to  the  farmer,  whether  it  has  three  leaves  or  four. 

Inoculating  Soil  for  Legumes. — When  introducing  some 
of  the  legumes  into  a  new  field,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
inoculate  the  soil  with  the  proper  nitrogen-gathering  bac- 
teria. Soil  for  alfalfa  may  be  inoculated  by  taking  soil 
from  a  successful  alfalfa  field  and  scattering  it  over  the 
new  field.  Each  acre  of  the  field  to  be  inoculated  should 
receive  200  to  3CX)  pounds  of  soil  from  the  old  alfalfa  field. 
After  scattering  the  soil  it  should  be  harrowed  into  the 
ground  immediately  to  protect  the  bacteria  from  injury 
by  exposure  to  sunlight.  The  bacteria  that  form  tubercles, 
or  nodules,  on  sweet  clover  will  also  form  nodules  on  alfalfa. 
Therefore,  a  field  may  be  inoculated  for  alfalfa  with  soil 
taken  from  around  the  roots  of  sweet  clover. 

Another  method  of  inoculation  is  to  spread  dampened 
alfalfa  seed  upon  cloth,  paper,  or  a  cement  floor  and  then 
sift  over  the  seed  a  small  quantity  of  soil  from  a  thriving 
alfalfa  field.  The  moistened  seeds  collect  some  of  the  soil 
containing  the  proper  bacteria.  As  soon  as  the  seed  becomes 
dry,  it  should  be  sown.  Inoculation  of  soil  for  alfalfa  may 
also  be  done  by  using  pure  cultures  of  the  nitrogen-form- 
ing bacteria.  The  alfalfa  seed  is  moistened  with  the  pure 
culture  and  then  sown.    Bottles  of  pure  cultures  may^  be 


HOW  LEGUMES  HELP  THE  FARMER 


45 


obtained  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.  C.    The  directions  for  using  accompany  each  bottle. 

Acid  Soils. — Nitrogen-gathering  bacteria  do  not  grow 
well  in  acid,  or  "sour,"  soils.  Soil  acidity,  when  very 
marked,  may  be  determined  by  means  of  blue  litmus  paper. 


Fig.  19. — Roots  of  soy  bean,  showing  nodules.    (From  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  214.) 


This  can  be  bought  at  a  drug  store.  The  soil  is  tested  by 
moistening  a  sample  of  it  with  water  and  placing  a  piece  of 
blue  Utmus  paper  in  it  for  a  few  minutes.  If  the  soil  is 
strongly  acid,  it  will  turn  the  litmus  paper  from  blue  to 
red.  To  correct  acidity  in  soil,  ground  limestone  should  be 
applied  at  the  rate  of  one  to  two  tons  to  the  acre.    Some 


46         HOW  LEGUMES  HELP  THE  FARMER 

soils  may  be  slightly  acid  and  not  change  blue  litmus  paper 
red.  Yet  lime  may  be  necessary  for  such  soils.  To  find 
this  out,  lime  should  be  spread  over  a  small  area  of  the 
field.  If  the  legumes  grow  better  on  the  limed  piece,  lime- 
stone should  be  added  to  the  whole  field. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  plants  bear  on  their  roots  little  tubercles  or 
nodules  which  serve  as  laboratories  for  the  production  of 
nitrates  in  the  soil?  What  name  is  given  to  this  group  of 
plants? 

2.  Although  legumes  enrich  the  soil  with  nitrogen,  they 
remove  what  two  important  plant  foods? 

3.  What  plant  foods  are  contained  in  wood  ashes? 

4.  Com  grown  on  soil  that  grew  clover  the  preceding 
year  is  darker  green  and  more  vigorous  than  corn  grown 
on  the  same  kind  of  soil  that  grew  timothy  the  year  before. 
Account  for  this. 

5.  Examine  the  roots  of  red  clover,  sweet  clover,  alfalfa, 
peas,  beans,  and  other  legumes.  Do  you  find  nodules  on 
each?  Examine  the  roots  of  timothy  and  other  grasses. 
Do  these  roots  have  nodules? 

6.  In  what  ways  can  we  inoculate  a  soil  with  the  proper 
bacteria  for  alfalfa? 

7.  WTiy  should  the  transferred  soil  or  the  treated  seed  be 
covered  in  the  ground  as  soon  as  possible? 

8.  How  can  you  tell  when  a  soil  is  acid? 

9.  How  can  soil  acidity  be  corrected? 


10.    THE  ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

Illustrative  material:  Reproduce  Figures  20,  21,  and  22011  the 
blackboard,  using  different  colored  crayons  to  represent  the 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

Plant  Foods  Prepared  Slowly We  learned  in  Lesson 

8  that  cropping  the  farm  tends  to  make  the  soil  "  poor." 
Another  process,  however,  tends  to  keep  the  soil  fertile 
in  spite  of  the  cropping.  We  learned  in  Lesson  4  that 
roots  can  take  in  plant  food  only  as  it  is  dissolved  in 
water.  Most  soils  contain  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
that  are  not  yet  dissolved  in  water,  and  so  are  not  in 
condition  to  be  used  by  plants.  These  undissolved  food 
materials  are  slowly  dissolved  by  the  action  of  carbon 
dioxide  in  the  soil;  hence  the  soluble  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  tend  to  increase  slowly  in  uncropped  soils.  Some 
ammonia  also  is  washed  down  from  the  atmosphere  by 
rains  and  snows,  and  this  tends  to  increase  the  nitrogen 
in  the  soil.  But  these  influences  do  not,  in  themselves, 
furnish  enough  plant  food  to  produce  a  good  crop  every 
year. 

Rotation  of  Crops. —  Some  products,  as  wheat  and  to- 
bacco, remove  much  fertility  from  the  soil;  others,  as 
butter,  remove  very  little.  If  we  raise  only  those  prod- 
ucts that  remove  much  fertility,  our  soil  will,  of  course, 
grow  "  poor  "  faster  than  if  we  grew  a  part  of  the  time 
those  that  remove  only  a  little.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
fertility  furnished  by  the  soil  and  atmosphere  may  be 

47 


48 


THE   ROTATION    OF    CROPS 


more  than  the  amount  removed,  even  if  no  manure  be 
appHed.  Farmers  have  found  it  wise  to  make  what  is 
called  a  "  rotation  of  crops/' —  that  is,  to  change  the  crop 
raised  on  a  given  field  from  year  to  year,  rather  than  to 
raise  the  same  crop  year  after  year.  Without  rotation, 
certain  fields  on  the  farm  would  soon  become  too  "  poor  " 
to  produce  good  crops,  while  others  would  have  more 
plant  food  than  the  crop  needs. 

Tobacco  Raising  Makes  Land  Poor —  In  the  pictures 
shown  in  this  lesson,  the  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  removed  from  the  soil  by  i,ooo  pounds 


||'--^--f3-^'' 


Fig.  20. —  Showing  the  pounds  of  plant  food  removed  by   1,000  pounds  of  Vir- 
ginia leaf  tobacco,  and  by  1,000  pounds  of  clover. 

each  of  several  different  crops,  are  shown  in  pounds. 
Each  small  square  indicates  one  pound.  From  Figure 
20  we  learn  that  tobacco  removes  large  amounts  of  nitro- 
gen and  potash.  More  than  8,000  pounds  of  average 
barnyard  manure  would  be  required  to  furnish  the  nitro- 
gen removed  by  1,000  pounds  of  Virginia  leaf  tobacco. 
Tobacco  is,  therefore,  not  a  profitable  crop  to  raise  unless 
it  can  be  sold  for  a  very  high  price. 

Corn,  Wheat,  and  Oats  Require  Nitrogen. —  From  Fig- 
ure 21  we  learn  that  Indian  corn,  wheat,  and  oats  remove 


THE   ROTATION    OF    CROPS 


49 


nitrogen  chiefly,  but  that  they  require  far  less  of  this 
than  does  an  equal  weight  of  tobacco.  We  observe  also 
that  Indian  corn  reduces  the  soil  fertility  less  rapidly  than 
oats  or  wheat.     One  thousand  pounds  of  average  barn- 


Indian  Corn 


\fJUeal 


Oats 


m 


§°  V '  J-tl • ' -'■^v' •' 'J   go V ■'■' J-L' '•* '"-5 V 


e£< 


Fig.  21. — Showing  the  amounts  of  the  three  important  plant  foods  removed  from 
the  soil  by  i.ooo  pounds  each  of  the  grain  of  Indian  corn,  wheat,  and  oats. 

yard  manure  contain  about  five  pounds  of  nitrogen. 
This  enables  us  to  compute  the  number  of  tons  of  barn- 
yard manure  required  to  furnish  the  nitrogen  for  i,ooo 
pounds  of  each  of  the  grains  named. 


OlroubeTries 


i«^      S 


Fig.  22. — Showing  the  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  removed 
from  the  soil  when  i.ooo  pounds  each  of  beef,  milk,  butter,  and  strawberries 
are  sold. 

Dairying  Removes  Little  Fertility From  Figure  22 

we  learn  that  beef  removes  about  as  much  nitrogen,  pound 
for  pound,  as  wheat,  and  more  phosphoric  acid.  But 
beef  is  worth  two  or  three  times  as  much  per  pound  as 

G.  &  M.  Ag.  4. 


50 


THE   ROTATION    OF    CROPS 


wheat,  while  the  amount  of  beef  sold  from  the  land  is 
less  than  that  of  wheat.  It  is,  therefore,  usually  more 
profitable  for  the  farmer  to  produce  beef  than  wheat. 
The  plant  food  removed,  the  price  in  the  market,  and 
the  labor  required  to  produce  a  crop,  must  all  be  consid- 
ered in  estimating  the  profits  in  raising  it.  It  appears 
from  the  picture  that  butter  removes  very  little  plant  food 
of  any  kind  from  the  soil,  while  it  is  worth  from  ten  to 
twenty  times  as  much  per  pound  as  wheat.  The  labor 
required  to  produce  butter  is,  however,  much  greater 
than  that  required  to  produce  wheat. 

Cotton —  The  cotton  plant  removes  a  large  quantity 
of  fertilizing  matter  from  the  soil,  but  if  the  lint  alone 
were  removed  it  would  take  but  little  from  the  soil.  The 
cotton  seed  is  very  rich  in  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid 
and  if  this  is  not  returned  to  the  soil  the  land  soon  be- 
comes poor. 

If  the  cotton  seed  is  sold  the  land  should  be  restored  by 
growing  a  crop  of  cowpeas,  alfalfa,  or  crimson  clover. 

Rotation  Suggested. — The  diagrams  on  pages  48  and  49 
and  Figure  18,  suggest  a  rotation  of  crops  for  the  farmer. 
After  raising  for  a  time  crops  that  remove  much  nitrogen, 
as  wheat,  oats,  Indian  corn,  or  tobacco,  it  would  be  wise 
to  sow  the  land  to  clover  or  some  other  nitrogen-gathering 
plant,  and  some  kind  of  grass,  and  to  feed  the  product  to 
cattle  for  two  or  more  years.  The  legumes  will  enrich  the 
soil  with  nitrogen,  while  the  small  amounts  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  removed  by  the  milk,  butter,  or  beef,  will 
enable  the  soil  to  become  stocked  with  these  plant  foods 
by  the  natural  method  described  in  the  first  paragraph  of 
this  lesson. 


THE   ROTATION   OF  CROPS  5 1 

Practical  Rotations. — A  good  rotation  alternates  crops 
from  three  classes.  These  classes  are:  (i)  cultivated  crops, 
as  corn  and  potatoes;  (2)  grain  crops,  such  as  wheat,  oats, 
and  barley;  (3)  grass  crops,  including  legumes.  A  three- 
year  rotation  may  be  (i)  corn,  (2)  oats,  (3)  clover.  Where 
corn  is  not  grown  a  three-year  rotation  may  be  (i)  potatoes, 
(2)  oats,  (3)  clover.  A  four-year  rotation  with  corn  may 
be  (i)  corn,  (2)  grain,  (3)  hay,  (4)  pasture. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  is  the  action  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  soil  upon 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash? 

2.  Name  some  farm  products  that  remove  but  little 
plant  food  from  the  soil. 

3.  Which  plant  food  is  removed  most  extensively  from 
the  soil  by  grain  crops? 

4.  How  much  phosphoric  acid  would  be  removed  from 
the  soil  of  an  acre  in  three  years  if  the  rotation  is  clover, 
corn,  and  oats,  and  if  3,000  pounds  of  clover,  2,000  pounds 
of  com,  and  1,000  pounds  of  oats  are  removed? 

5.  How  many  tons  of  manure  will  it  take  to  furnish  this 
phosphoric  acid  if  one  ton  contains  5  pounds  of  this  plant 
food?  If  the  crops  are  fed  on  the  farm  and  the  manure  is 
returned  to  the  fields  about  one-half  of  the  phosphoric  acid 
is  returned.     How  may  the  rest  be  supplied?    (See  p.  37.) 

6.  From  what  three  classes  of  crops  are  rotations  made? 

7.  Make  out  a  four-year  rotation  for  a  farm  in  your  neigh- 
borhood. 

8.  One  farmer  sells  grain  and  hay  from  his  farm  every 
year.  Compare  the  fertility  of  this  farm  with  that  of  one 
from  which  Hve  stock  and  dairy  products  are  sold. 


11.     SAVING  SOIL  MOISTURE. 

Illustrative  material:  Two  lamp  chimneys,  a  pan,  fine  soil 
and  coarse  soil. 

Save  Moisture  in  Soil. —  We  learned  in  Lesson  2  that 
water  passes  off  the  surface  of  the  soil  by  evaporation, 
and  that  other  water  comes  from  below  to  take  its  place. 
We  also  learned  in  Lesson  3  that  plants  take  large 
amounts  of  water  from  the  soil,  and  that  few  field  crops 
receive  as  much  water  as  they  need  in  summer.  With 
the  proi>er  knowledge,  the  farmer  and  the  gardener  may 
do  much  to  prevent  the  useless  loss  of  moisture  from  the 
soil  in  dry  weather. 

Manure  to  Make  Humus —  We  learned  in  Lesson  8 
that  the  presence  of  humus  enables  the  soil  to  hold  more 
water.  A  soil  that  contains  plenty  of  humus  catches 
more  water  when  it  rains  than  one  that  contains  little 
humus.  It  holds  the  water  longer  in  dry  weather.  One 
of  the  best  ways  to  retain  moisture  in  the  soil  is  to  use 
plenty  of  barnyard  and  stable  manure,  and  thus  keep  the 
soil  full  of  humus.  Commercial  fertilizers  do  not,  to 
any  great  extent,  help  the  soil  to  retain  water. 

Coarse  and  Fine  Soil  Compared. —  In  the  experiment 
shown  in  Figure  23,  the  two  lamp  chimneys  were  filled 
to  the  dotted  line  with  dry  soil  that  had  been  sifted 
through  a  flour  sieve.  Enough  of  the  soil  that  would 
not  pass  through  the  sieve  was  then  added  to  the  left 
chimney  to  raise  the  soil  to  the  same  height  as  that  in 

52 


SAVING   SOIL    MOISTURE 


53 


the  other.  A  little  water  was  then  added  to  the  pan. 
The  water  rose  through  the  soil  by  capillary  attraction  at 
about  the  same  rate  in  both  chimneys  until  it  reached  the 
coarse  soil  in  the  left  one.  It  continued  to  rise  to  the  top 
of  the  soil  in  the  right-hand  chimney,  but  was  held  back 
several  hours  by  the  coarse  soil  at  the  top  of  the  left  one. 
Soil  Mulch. — This  experiment  shows  that,  if  the  surface 
of  the  land  is  covered  with  an  inch  or  two  in  depth  of  dry, 


CotrstStU- 

WAUrltwl- 


fine  Soil 


Fig.  23. — Effect  of  pulverizing  soil. 

crumbled  soil,  the  water  will  rise  through  this  layer  much 
more  slowly  than  through  the  soil  below.  Since  evapora- 
tion occurs  almost  entirely  at  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
this  crumbled  layer  greatly  hinders  evaporation,  the  water 
thus  being  saved  for  growth.  This  crumbled  layer,  which 
is  called  a  soil  mulch,  is  formed  by  passing  over  the  ground 


54  SAVING   SOIL  MOISTURE 

with  a  cultivator.  In  the  garden,  it  may  be  formed  with 
the  hoe  or  rake.  A  hard  rain  storm  compacts  the  soil  more 
or  less,  hence  the  crumbling  should  be  repeated  after  every 
such  storm. 

Other  Mulches. — When  the  surface  of  the  soil  can  not 
be  easily  cultivated,  as  in  closely-planted  orchards,  evapor- 
ation may  be  reduced  by  covering  with  a  layer  of  straw, 
leaves,  shavings,  tan  bark  or  manure.  These  materials 
act  like  crumbled  soil  to  hinder  the  passage  of  soil  water  to 
the  surface.  Trees  usually  grow  much  faster  on  land  that 
is  cultivated  or  mulched  than  on  that  covered  with  a 
growing  crop,  because  their  roots  are  better  supplied  with 
water. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  effect  does  manure  have  upon  the  amount  of 
soil  moisture? 

2.  What  is  a  soil  mulch? 

3.  Explain  how  a  soil  mulch  saves  moisture  for  the  crops. 

4.  How  is  a  soil  mulch  formed?  When  is  it  necessary 
to  renew  a  soil  mulch? 

5.  For  what  crops  in  your  home  locality  do  the  farmers 
make  a  soil  mulch? 

6.  Add  equal  weights  of  the  same  kind  of  soil  to  two  tin 
pails.  Moisten  the  soil  of  each  by  adding  equal  volumes 
of  water.  Do  not  make  the  soil  too  wet.  Leave  untouched 
the  soil  in  one  pail.  With  a  table  fork  pulverize  the  soil 
in  the  other  pail  until  a  mulch  of  loose,  dry  soil  is  formed. 
Keep  both  pails  in  a  dry  place  for  five  or  six  days.  At  the 
end  of  that  time  examine  the  moisture  in  each.  Which  has 
the  more  soil  moisture? 


12.     THE  PARASITES  OF  PLANTS. 

Illustrative  material:  Portions  of  a  plant  that  are  being  in- 
jured by  an  insect  or  a  fungous  disease.  A  blighted  twig  from 
an  apple  or  pear  tree,  a  scabby  apple  or  potato,  or  a  smutted 
head  of  grain  will  illustrate  the  latter. 

The  Potato  Beetle. — Nearly  every  American  boy  and 
girl  has  seen  the  potato  beetle.  (Figure  24.)  This  is 
an  insect  that  feeds  on 
the  leaves  of  the  potato 
plant.  The  potato 
beetle  is  a  parasite  of 
the  potato  plant.  There 
are  also  very  small 
plants  that  sometimes 
grow  within  and  be- 
tween the  cells  of  the 
potato  plant,  causing 
the  leaves  to  die,  and 
the  tubers  to  rot.    Any 

animal     or     plant       that        Fig.  24.- Potato  beetles,  larva.  and  eggs. 

lives  in  or  within  a  larger  animal  or  plant,  feeding 
upon  its  substance,  is  called  a  parasite.  The  plants 
that  live  upon  or  within  animals  or  other  plants  mostly 
belong  to  the  class  known  as  fungi.  A  single  plant  of 
this,  class  is  called  a  fungus,  and  parasites  of  this  class 
are  called  fungous  parasites.  Parasites  are  generally 
harmful  to  the  plants  or  animals  on  which  they  live. 
Poison  for  the  Potato  Beetle. — We  learned  in  Lesson 


56  THE  PARASITES   OF  PLANTS 

4  that  the  food  for  the  living  cells  of  plants  is  mostly 
formed  in  the  leaves,  and  that  whatever  destroys  the 
leaves  cuts  off  a  part  of  the  food  supply  of  the  plant. 
Every  American  farmer  knows  that  he  must  destroy  the 
potato  beetle  or  it  will  nearly  destroy  his  potato  crop. 
Since  the  potato  beetle  eats  the  leaves,  by  putting  poison 
on  the  leaves  we  can  poison  the  beetle.  For  this  purpose, 
a  deadly  poison  called  Paris  green  is  much  used.  One 
ounce  of  Paris  green  may  be  stirred  into  twelve  gallons 
of  water,  and  the  mixture  sprinkled  on  the  plants.  Or 
an  ounce  of  Paris  green  may  be  well  mixed  with  nine 
pounds  of  land  plaster  and  the  mixture  dusted  on  the 
plants.  Most  other  insects  that  eat  the  leaves  of  plants 
may  be  destroyed  in  the  same  way  as  the  potato  beetle. 
Plant  Lice. — Those  who  have  the  care  of  house  plants 
have  seen  a  small  green  insect  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves.  This  insect,  commonly  called 
the  green  fly  or  the  plant  louse  ( Figure 
25),  does  not  eat  the  leaves  as  the  po- 
tato beetle  does.  And  yet  it  injures 
the  plants  on  which  it  lives.  It  does 
this  by  sucking  out  the  sap,  thus  rob- 
bing the  cells  of  water  and  food.  Since 
it  does  not  eat  the  leaves,  we  can  not 

Fig.    25. — Plant  louse.  •  •     1  •         •  i       1 

poison  it  by  poisoning  the  leaves,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  potato  beetle.  To  destroy  the  green  fly 
and  other  sucking  insects,  use  some  substance  that  pre- 
vents their  breathing.  Strong  soap  suds,  tobacco  water, 
or  kerosene  emulsion,  sprayed  on  this  class  of  insects, 
usually  destroys  them.  (See  page  254.)  In  greenhouses, 
tobacco  smoke  is  much  used  for  the  green  fly. 


THE   PARASITES    OF   PLANTS 


57 


Fungous  Parasites.— The  fungous  parasites  are  often 
quite  as  harmful  as  injurious  insects.  The  Wight  of  the 
pear  tree,  the  smutted  heads  of 
grain  (Figure  26),  the  rotting 
plums  and  cherries  on  the 
trees  and  grapes  on  the  vines, 
are  examples  of  plant  diseases 
due  to  injurious  fungi.  We 
have  learned  to  prevent  some 
of  the  injuries  caused  by 
fungi.  It  is  usually  important 
to  apply  our  preventive  before 
the  disease  appears,  otherwise 
it  may  come  too  late  to  be 
helpful.  An  ounce  of  preven- 
tion is  worth  a  pound  of  cure. 

Bordeaux  Mixture. — To  pre- 
vent harmful  fungi,  the  so- 
called  "Bordeaux  mixture" 
is  most  used.  To  make  this, 
put  five  gallons  of  water  into  a 

wooden  vessel  holding  at  least  twelve  gallons,  and  in 
this  water  hang  a  cloth  sack  containing  one  pound  of 
copper  sulfate  (also  called  bluestone  and  blue  vitriol). 
(Figure  27.)  In  another  wooden  vessel,  slack  one  pound 
of  fresh  quicklime  in  five  gallons  of  water.  When  the 
copper  sulfate  has  all  dissolved,  and  the  lime  has  all 
slacked,  stir  up  the  lime  and  water  and  strain  the  mixture 
slowly  through  a  coarse  cloth  into  the  copper  sulfate  solu- 
tion. The  coarse  part  that  will  not  go  through  the  cloth 
may  be  thrown  away.     The  mixture  is  best  put  on  the 


Fig.    26. —  Heads  of  oats   affected 
with  smut.     Reduced  one-half. 


58 


THE   PARASITES   OF  PLANTS 


plants  with  a  spraying  pump.     (See  page  253.)     (Copper 
sulfate  is  poisonous,  although  less  so  than  Paris  green.) 

Oat  Smut  and  Wheat  Smut —  The  oat  smut  or  wheat 
smut  attacks  the  plant  if  the  seed  that  is  planted  is 
smutty.  To  prevent  this,  it  is  necessary  to  destroy  the 
smut  fungi  on  the  seed  before  planting.  The  best  rem- 
edy for  this  disease  is  formaldehyde.  This  is  a  chemical 
that  may  be  purchased  at  the  drug  store.  One  pound 
of  formaldehyde  to  fifty  gallons  of  water  will  give  the 
proper  strength.     Soak  the  grain  in  this  chemical   for 

about  twenty  minutes, 
and  then  spread  it  out 
so  that  it  may  dry  with- 
out heating. 

It    is    probable    that 
farmers  suffer  a  loss  of 
fully  one-fifth  of  their 
pats  and  wheat  through 
the  growth  of  smut  on 
the    grain.     This    loss 
Fig.  27- Making  Bordeaux  mixture,     j^^y    ^^    entirely    pre- 
vented by  the  use  of  formaldehyde  as   directed.     The 
same  treatment  will  prevent  potato  scab.    (See  page  255.) 

Parasites  are  Numerous. — The  harmful  parasites  of 
plants  are  so  numerous  that  w^e  can  not  name  them  all 
here.  The  methods  used  for  destroying  or  preventing 
insects  and  fungi  are  also  numerous.  The  farmer  and 
the  gardener  may  obtain  books  that  name  the  leading 
parasites  that  injure  each  crop,  and  that  give  the  best 
known  methods  of  avoiding  damage  from  them.  It  is 
necessary  to  keep  careful  watch  for  harmful  parasites, 


THE    PARASITES    OF   PLANTS  59 

Otherwise  they  may  do  much  harm  before  their  presence 
is  discovered. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  is  a  parasite? 

2.  How  does  the  potato  beetle  injure  the  potato  plant? 

3.  How  may  insects  that  eat  leaves  be  destroyed? 

4.  In  what  way  are  sucking  insects  killed? 

5.  Tell  how  to  make  Bordeaux  mixture. 

6.  How  may  oat  smut  be  prevented?    Potato  scab? 

7.  Describe  some  spraying  operation  that  you  have 
seen.  Tell  what  was  the  spraying  liquid,  the  method  of 
spraying,  and  the  purpose. 


13.    SEEDS    CAN   NOT   GERMINATE   WITHOUT 

AIR. 

Illustrative  material:  Two  shallow  dishes  or  saucers,  two 
tumblers,  and  a  few  grains  of  wheat. 

Half  fill  two  wide-mouthed  bottles  or  two  jelly  cups  with  soil 
that  is  wet  enough  to  be  easily  worked  up  in  the  hands  like  soft 
putty.  Pack  the  soil  in  one  of  the  dishes  until  the  air  is  well 
pressed  out  of  it,  adding  enough  soil  to  make  the  dish  half  full 
when  packed.  Leave  the  soil  loose  in  the  other  dish.  Put  a 
few  wheat  grains  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  each  dish  and 
cover  these  to  the  depth  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  the 
dish  with  the  soil  unpacked  and  with  packed  soil  in  the  other 
dish.     Close  both  dishes  and  put  them  in  a  warm  place. 

Air   Necessary   for   Germination Figure   28   shows 

two  shallow  dishes,  in  each  of  which  kernels  of  wheat 

were  placed.  Enough 
water  was  then  added 
to  the  right-hand  dish 
to  cover  the  kernels  to 
about  half  their  depth, 
and  to  the.  left-hand 
dish  to  cover  them  to 
twice  their  depth.  The 
dishes  were  then  set  in 
a  warm  room  and  cov- 
ered with  tumblers  to  prevent  evaporation  of  the  water. 
After  two  days,  the  kernels  in  the  right-hand  dish  had 
germinated,  while  none  of  those  in  the  left-hand  dish 
had  done  so.     Why  did  not  the  kernels  in  the  left-hand 

60 


Fig.  28. —  Effect  of  air  on  seeds. 


SEEDS   CAN    NOT    GERMINATE   WITHOUT  AIR  6l 

dish  germinate?  They  were  in  contact  with  water  in 
both  dishes,  and  both  dishes  were  kept  in  a  warm 
room.  In  the  right-hand  dish,  however,  the  kernels 
were  in  contact  with  plenty  of  air,  while  in  the  other 
dish  most  of  the  air  was  shut  out.  We  all  know  that 
seeds  will  not  germinate  so  long  as  they  are  dry,  and  that, 
even  though  they  have  plenty  of  water,  they  will  not  ger- 
minate in  a  very  cold  place.  But  this  experiment  shows 
that,  although  wheat  seeds  may  have  plenty  of  water  and 
warmlh,  they  will  not  germinate  unless  they  also  have 
plenty  of  air.  The  same  is  true  of  most  of  the  seeds  com- 
monly planted  on  the  farm  or  in  the  garden. 

Some  Seeds  Contain  Air. —  The  seeds  of  some  plants 
that  grow  in  water,  as  the  water  lily  and  rice,  and  of  a  few 
land  plants,  as  Indian  corn,  may  germinate  under  water. 
Dry  seeds  usually  contain  pores  that  are  filled  with  air, 
and  water  also  usually  contains  some  air.  These  seeds 
are  able  to  get  enough  air  from  their  pores  and  from  the 
water,  to  enable  them  to  germinate.  If  they  are  soaked 
for  a  time  in  cold  water  to  expel  the  air  within  them, 
and  are  then  sealed  up  in  a  fruit  jar  of  water  from  which 
the  air  has  been  expelled  by  long  boiling,  they  can  not 
germinate.    No  seeds  can  germinate  without  access  to  air. 

Packed  Soil  Does  Not  Admit  Air —  In  the  experiment 
shown  in  Figure  29,  a  few  radish  seeds  were  planted  in 
soil  that  was  wet  enough  to  be  easily  worked  up  in  the 
hands,  like  soft  putty.  The  soil  was  then  packed  down 
closely  around  the  seeds  in  one  of  the  dishes,  and  left 
loose  in  the  other.  We  now  see  that  the  radish  seeds  have 
germinated  in  the  loose  soil,  while  they  have  germinated 
very  poorly,  if  at  all,  in  the  packed  soil.     They  failed  to 


62 


SEEDS   CAN    NOT    GERMINATE    WITHOUT   AIR 


germinate  in  the  packed  soil  because  the  air  was  largely 
shut  out  by  the  too  wet  and  too  closely  packed  soil. 

Wet  Clayey  Soil 
Excludes  Air.  — 
Clayey  soil  so  wet 
that,  with  slight  pres- 
sure, it  becomes  like 
soft  putty,  is  too  wet 
to  plant  seeds  in.  Al- 
though the  seeds  can 
absorb  water  rapidly 
from  such  a  soil,  they 
rarely  germinate  well 
in  it,  for,  if  it  is  left 
loose  over  the  seeds,  it 
dries  out  quickly,  and, 
if  it  is  packed  around 

Fig.  29.—  Roots  need  air.  them,   it  shutS  OUt  tOO 

much  air.     Planted  seeds  should  not  be  watered  so  often 
as  to  keep  the  spaces  in  the  soil  filled  with  water. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Why  did  not  the  grains  of  wheat  germinate  under 
water? 

2.  Name  some  kinds  of  seeds  that  germinate  under  water. 
From  where  do  they  get  the  air? 

3.  Name  three  things  necessary  for  germination. 

4.  Seeds  germinate  most  quickly  in  a  moist,  warm,  sandy 
soil.  Why  will  they  not  germinate  so  quickly  in  a  moist, 
warm,  clay  soil? 


14.    PACKING  THE  SOIL  ABOUT  PLANTED 
SEEDS. 

Illustrative  material:  Place  an  inch  or  more  of  damp  garden 
soil  in  each  of  two  pint  fruit  jars,  and  put  twenty  navy  beans  on 
the  soil  in  each  jar.  Cover  them  to  the  depth  of  about  two 
inches  with  the  soil,  packing  it  down  firmly  in  one  jar,  and 
leaving  it  as  loose  as  possible  in  the  other.  Screw  the  caps  on 
loosely  on  both  jars,  and  place  them  in  a  warm  place. 

Packing  Loam  About  Seeds. —  If  we  plant  a  few  live 
navy  beans  in  damp  (not  wet)  garden  soil  in  each  of  two 
jars,  and  then  pack  the  soil  down  closely  around  the  beans 
in  one  of  the  jars,  leaving  it  as  loose  as  possible  in  the 
other,  and  set  both  jars  in  a  warm  room  for  two  days,  we 
shall  generally  find  that  a  larger  number  of  the  beans  have 
germinated  in  the  jar  in  which  the  soil  was  packed  than 
in  the  other  jar. 

Absorb  Water  Faster. — When  we  press  the  soil  closely 
about  seeds,  the  seeds  absorb  water  and  swell  faster  than 
if  we  leave  them  loose.  The  seeds  can  not  germinate  until 
they  have  taken  up  all  the  water  they  can  hold.  Since 
packing  the  soil  about  them  enables  them  to  absorb  water 
faster,  it  also  enables  them  to  germinate  sooner,  if  the  soil 
is  not  too  wet. 

Field  Illustration. — Figure  30  shows  a  picture  of  a 
part  of  a  recently  planted  grain  field.  This  field  was 
sown  by  hand,  and  then  harrowed  to  cover  the  seed. 
Wherever  the  man  that  drove  the  team  stepped,  the  grain 

63 


64  PACKING   THE    SOIL  ABOUT   PLANTED    SEEDS 

has  come  up  better  than  elsewhere,  because  the  man's 
weight  pressed  the  soil  closely  about  the  seed.  Farmers 
and  gardeners  have  often  noticed  this  fact,  and  so  they 
have  devised  various  means  for  packing  the  soil  over 
planted  seeds. 

Testimony  of  a  Gardener. — Gardeners  often  walk  with 
very  short  steps  over  a  row  of  planted  seeds,  placing  the 
heel  of  one  foot  against  the  toe  of  the  other,  so  as  to  step 
on  every  part  of  the  row.  A  very  successful  gardener 
once  wrote,  "As  an  experiment,  I  sowed  twelve  rows  of 
...      •..•.'  sweet      com      and 

twelve       rows       of 
;,-.^  "       beets,    treading   in, 
•;••.■      after  sowing,  every 
alternate     row     of 
■  "'/V'"- •••".'■  :Kyv''  •".%/.  .;•  '.*  y^f^-:-  each.  In  both  cases, 

■"•.y.y  '  ••?•.;.:  •    '  those     trodden     in 

Fig.   30.—  Effect  of  pressing  the  earth  closely        CamC      Up      m      four 

^•^""^ '^^'*^-  days,    while    those 

unfirmed  remained  twelve  days  before  starting,  and 
would  not  then  have  germinated  had  not  rain  fallen." 

Rollers. — When  farmers  plant  corn  with  the  hand  hoe, 
they  commonly  strike  the  soil  with  the  flat  side  of  the  hoe, 
or  often  they  step  on  each  "hill"  after  covering  it,  to 
press  the  soil  about  the  seed.  When  grain  is  sown  in  dry 
weather,  a  heavy  roller  is  commonly  driven  over  the  land 
to  pack  the  soil  about  the  seed.  The  heavy  split  wheels  of 
the  ordinary  cornplanter  serve  as  rollers.  Grain  sowing 
machines,  and  complanters,  often  have  little  iron  rollers 
attached  to  them  to  press  the  soil  over  the  seed.  Gardeners 
often  use  hand  rollers  for  this  purpose. 


PACKING  THE   SOIL  ABOUT  PLANTED   SEEDS  65 

Pressing  with  a  Board. — Very  small  seeds,  as  those 
of  tobacco  and  petunia  plants,  are  often  sown  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  without  being  afterward  covered  with 
soil.  In  such  cases,  the  sower  commonly  lays  over  them 
a  board  on  which  he  walks,  to  press  the  soil,  and  to  bring 
the  seed  into  very  close  contact  with  it. 

Evaporation  Makes  Packing  Necessary If  the  soil 

were  always  damp  on  the  surface,  it  would  not  be  neces- 
sary to  pack  it  over  the  seed.  But,  since  the  surface  tends 
to  dry  out  by  evaporation  to  the  depth  of  an  inch  or  two, 
planted  seeds  need  to  absorb  their  water  quickly  in  dry 
weather,  or  the  soil  may  become  so  dry  about  them  that 
they  can  not  secure  enough  water  for  germination.  In 
this  case,  the  seeds  must  wait  until  rain  comes,  or  until 
watered,  and  thus  the  crop  will  be  delayed  or  it  may  be 
entirely  cut  off.  Thus,  the  simple  act  of  pressing  the 
soil  about  the  planted  seeds  will  sometimes  save  a  valu- 
able crop  that  would  otherwise  be  lost. 

Plant  Soon  after  Plowing — When  ground  is  plowed 
in  dry  weather,  the  dry  surface  soil  is  turned  under,  and 
the  more  moist  soil  from  below  is  brought  to  the  top.  If 
seeds  are  planted  at  once  in  this  moist  top  soil,  and  the 
soil  is  well  pressed  about  them,  they  will  almost  always 
germinate  before  the  surface  becomes  too  dry,  even  in 
time  of  rather  severe  drought.  It  is  important  in  dry 
weather,  therefore,  to  plant  seeds  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  ground  is  plowed  and  prepared. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

I.  Why  do  seeds  germinate  sooner  in  a  soil  that  is  slightly 
moist  when  it  is  packed  closely  about  them? 

G.  &  M.  Ag.  s. 


66  PACKING  THE   SOIL  ABOUT  PLANTED   SEEDS 

2.  Under  what  conditions  should  a  roller  be  used  after 
planting  seed? 

3.  When  a  lawn  is  started,  the  seeds  are  scattered  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  and  the  soil  is  rolled  several  times. 
How  does  rolling  help  the  germination  of  grass  seed? 

4.  If  a  board  is  left  lying  flat  on  a  new-seeded  lawn,  the 
seeds  in  dry  weather  will  germinate  faster  under  it  than  in 
other  places.    Why? 


15.    SEED  TESTING. 

Illustrative  material:  Procure  an  ounce  of  clover  seed  and  as 
many  small  patty  pans  as  there  are  pupils.  Put  loo  seeds  of 
red  or  white  clover  in  the  seed  tester.  Put  in  enough  seeds  of 
oats,  barley,  Indian  corn,  peas,  beans,  and  cucumber  or  melon 
to  supply  each  pupil  with  at  least  four  of  each  kind. 

Before  taking  up  the  lesson,  remove  the  cover  of  the  seed 
tester,  and  the  upper  cloth,  and  pass  the  opeu  tester  about  the 
class,  after  which  remove,  with  a  forceps,  the  clover  seeds  that 
have  failed  to  germinate,  leaving  all  the  other  seeds.  Count  the 
ungerminated  clover  seeds,  and  let  the  pupils  subtract  the  num- 
ber from  100.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  per  cent  of 
germination;  i.  e.,  the  number  of  seeds  per  hundred  that  will 
germinate. 

At  the  close  of  the  lesson,  give  each  pupil  a  thimbleful  of  commercial 
clover  seed  in  a  patty  pan.  Require  each  pupil  to  separate  the  seed  from 
the  impurities.  Estimate  the  relative  amounts  of  each.  Of  what  do  the 
impurities  consist? 

Use  of  Seed  Tester. — We  learned  in  Lessons  13  and  14 
the  soil  conditions  that  are  necessary  for  the  germination 
of  seeds.  We  now  learn  that  seeds  of  various  kinds  ger- 
minate as  freely  in  the  seed  tester  as  when  planted  in  moist 
soil.  By  means  of  the  seed  tester,  we  can  easily  find  out, 
before  we  plant  them,- whether  or  not  a  sample  of  seeds  can 
germinate. 

Age  Affects  Germination — Not  all  seeds  can  ger- 
minate, even  though  they  appear  all  right  outside.  Seeds 
germinate  less  freely  as  they  become  old,  and  after  a 
certain  age  they  lose  their  power  to  germinate.  Some 
kinds  of  seeds  retain  their  power  to  germinate  much 

longer  than  others. 

67 


r 


68 


SEED    TESTING 


Other  Causes  Affecting  Germination Seeds  may  fail 

to  germinate  from  other  causes  than  old  age.  Some- 
times they  are  sorted  when  too  damp,  and  so  become 
musty ;  such  seeds  often  fail  to  germinate.  In  the  pump- 
kin, cucumber,  and  certain  other  plants,  the  seed  shells 
are  sometimes  empty.  Seeds  of  Indian  corn  sometimes 
freeze  before  they  become  dry,  and  so  lose  their  vitality. 


CHERVIL 
SEA  KALE 


lyr. 


SOY  BEAN 

HOP 

INDIAN  CORN 

ONION 

PARSNIP 


2  yrs. 


LEEK 

PARSLEY 

PEA 


RHUBARB 
STRAWBERRY 


3  yrs. 


CARROT 
LENTILS 


MUSTARD 
TOMATO 


4  yrs. 


ASPARAGUS  GARDEN  AND 

KALE  WATER  CRESS 
CABBAGE  GUMBO 

CAULIFLOWER  LETTUCE 


MUSKMELON 
SPINACH 
TURNIP 


5  yrs. 


BEAN 

EGG  PLANT 

WATERMELON 


PUMPKIN 
SQUASH 


10  yrs. 


ENDIVE 
CUCUMBER 


OATS 
BARLEY 
WHEAT 


FLAX 
BUCKWHEAT 


Fig.   31. —  Showing  the  average  number   of  years  that  the  seeds  named   retain 
their  power  to  germinate,  under  ordinary  conditions. 

For  these  reasons,  it  is  best  to  test  seeds  before  planting 
them,  unless  we  know  that  they  will  germinate. 

How  to  Make  and  Use  a  Seed  Tester —  A  seed  tester 
for  use  at  home  may  be  made  of  two  table  plates,  and 
two  circular  pieces  of  thick  cloth  large  enough  to  cover 
the  bottom  of  the  plates.  Put  the  cloths  in  boiling  water 
for  a  few  minutes  before  using  them,  to  kill  the  spores 


SEED    TESTING  69 

of  fungi  they  may  contain.  Wring  them  out  until 
only  moderately  wet,  spread  one  over  the  bottom  of  one 
of  the  plates,  and  put  lOO  of  the  seeds  to  be  tested  upon 
it.  Cover  these  with  the  other  cloth,  and  place  the  second 
plate  on  the  one  containing  the  seeds,  taking  care  that  the 
rims  are  together.  Set  the  tester  in  a  warm  room.  Look 
at  the  seeds  from  time  to  time  and  remove  all  that  have 
germinated.  When  all  seem  to  have  germinated  that 
will,  subtract  the  number  that  failed  to  germinate  from 
100.  The  remainder  will  show  the  per  cent  of  live  seeds 
the  sample  contains.  Boil  the  cloths  again  before  using 
them  for  a  second  test. 

Importance  of  Testing  Clover  Seed  Before  Purchasing. 
—  As  we  have  learned,  the  clover  crop  is  a  very  impor- 
tant one  to  the  farmer  in  many  countries.  Most  farmers 
need  to  buy  their  clover  seed,  and  it  is  generally  pretty 
high  in  price.  It  is  important,  therefore,  to  test  clover 
seed  before  buying  it.  It  is  well  to  procure  several  dif- 
ferent samples  from  the  seed  store,  noting  the  price  at 
which  each  can  be  purchased.  Some  of  these  samples 
will  probably  contain  more  dirt,  sticks  and  weed  seeds 
than  others,  and  in  some  the  clover  seeds  will  germinate 
better  than  others.  The  best  sample  to  buy  will  be  the 
one  that  gives  the  largest  quantity  of  live  clover  seeds  for 
the  lowest  price. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Why  should  seeds  be  tested  before  planting? 

2.  Tell  how  to  make  and  use  a  seed  tester. 

3.  What  kinds  of  seeds  should  be  tested  before  they  are 
bought? 


70  SEED   TESTING 

4.  Name  some  seeds  that  are  too  old  to  germinate  well 
after  two  years.    Name  some  that  are  good  after  six  years. 

5.  One  sample  of  clover  seed  costs  14  cents  a  pound,  and 
another  costs  16  cents  a  pound.  A  farmer  tests  both  for 
germination  and  finds  that  the  cheaper  seed  tests  75  per 
cent,  and  the  higher  priced  seed  tests  95  per  cent  germina- 
tion. Which  sample  would  he  buy  in  order  to  get  the  most 
live  clover  seeds  for  a  given  sum  of  money? 


16.    HOW  SEEDS  "  COME  UP." 

Illustrative  material:    Four  glass  jars,  garden  soil,  and  seeds 
of  wheat,  radish,  pea  and  bean. 

Planting  the  Seeds. —  Figure  32  shows  four  fruit  jars, 
each  of  which  contains  a  different  kind  of  plant.  About 
two  inches  in  depth  of  moist  garden  soil  was  put  into  each 
jar.  Ten  kernels  of  wheat  were  then  placed  on  the  soil 
in  jar  No.  i,  ten  seeds  of  radish  in  jar  No.  2,  ten  seeds 
of  pea  in  jar  No.  3,  and  ten  seeds  of  navy  bean  in  jar 
No.  4.     The  seeds  in  all  the  jars  were  then  covered  about 


Fig.  32. —  Experiment  with  seeds. 

an  inch  deep  with  moist  soil,  after  which  the  jars  were 
closed  and  set  in  a  warm  room. 

Wheat  and  Radish  Plantlets — The  seeds  have  now 
germinated,  and  the  plantlets  have  just  come  up, —  that 
is,  they  have  just  appeared  above  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
We  may  see  that  the  plantlets  are  acting  quite  differently 
in  the  different  jars.     In  jar  No.  i,  the  blades  of  wheat 

71 


72  HOW    SEEDS        COME   UP 

have  reached  the  surface  with  very  httle  disturbance  of 
the  soil.  In  jar  No.  2,  the  radish  plantlets  seem  to  have 
had  a  harder  time  in  coming  up.  Their  ckimsy  seed 
leaves  have  lifted  and  moved  the  soil  in  places,  and  left  it 
in  slight  ridges. 

The  Pea  Plantlets —  The  pea  plantlets.  in  jar  No.  3, 
seem  to  have  behaved  more  like  those  of  the  wheat. 
Each  appears  first  as  a  slender  stem  to  which  tiny  leaves 
are  attached,  and  this  stem  seems  to  have  found  its  way 
among  the  soil  psjticles  without  moving  them  much. 
There  are  no  thick,  clumsy  seed  leaves,  as  in  the  radish, 
although  its  stem  is  much  thicker  than  that  of  the  wheat 
and  quite  different  from  it  in  appearance. 

The  Bean  Plantlets —  The  plantlets  of  the  bean  seem 
to  have  had  the  hardest  time  of  all  in  reaching  the  sur- 
face. Instead  of  sending  up  slender  stems,  like  the  peas, 
or  thin  blades,  like  the  wheat,  the  now  greatly  swollen 
beans  seem  to  have  been  lifted  bodily  out  of  the  soil,  while 
the  earth  was  lifted  to  make  way  for  them.  The  plant- 
lets  seem  to  have  come  up  back  foremost,  with  the  tops 
pointing  downward  and  the  beans  seem  to  have  divided 
into  halves.  A  little  later  the  stems  straighten  up  and 
the  halves  spread  apart,  each  half  becoming  a  very  clumsy 
seed  leaf,  a  little  like  that  of  the  radish,  but  much  larger. 

Two  Types. —  The  different  ways  in  which  these  plant- 
lets  reached  the  surface  illustrate  two  types.  The  wheat 
and  pea  belong  to  one  type,  in  which  the  plantlet  grows 
directly  upward,  without  being  hindered  by  clumsy  seed 
leaves.  The  seeds  of  such  plants  may  be  rather  deeply 
planted,  and  still  their  stems  will  be  able  to  reach  the 
surface.     The  radish  and  bean  belong  to  the  other  type, 


HOW    SEEDS        COME   UP  73 

in  which  the  greater  part  of  what  was  once  the  seed  is 
forced  up  through  the  soil,  and  appears  above  the  surface. 
If  the  seeds  of  such  plants  are  planted  deeper  than  four 
or  five  times  their  thickness,  the  plantlets  will  be  unable  to 
lift  the  soil  above  them,  and  so  can  not  come  up  at  all. 
To  this  class  of  plants  belong,  besides  the  bean  and  radish, 
the  beet,  parsnip,  carrot,  squash,  cucumber,  melon,  clover, 
buckwheat,  and,  in  fact,  almost  all  the  common  farm  and 
garden  crops,  except  plants  of  the  pea  family  and  of  the 
grass  family. 

Rule  for  Depth  of  Planting. —  The  following  rule  may 
be  safely  followed  for  the  seeds  commonly  planted  on  the 
farm  and  in  the  garden:  Seeds  of  plants  that  come  up 
without  thick  seed  leaves,  as  Indian  corn,  wheat,  rye, 
oats,  barley,  millet  and  other  grasses,  peas,  lentils,"  and 
vetches,  may  be  safely  covered  to  ten  times  their  thickness. 
Other  seeds  should  not  be  covered  more  than  five  times 
their  thickness.  As  a  rule,  no  seeds  should  be  covered 
deeper  than  is  needful  to  insure  a  supply  of  soil  moisture. 
It  is  often  desirable  to  sow  a  crop  in  the  orchard  in  sum- 
mer, when  the  soil  is  rather  dry;  for  this  purpose,  it  is 
important  to  choose  one  the  seed  of  which  may  be  deeply 
planted. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Name  several  plants  that,  in  germinating,  carry  the 
seed  -leaves  above  the  ground.  Name  several  plants  that, 
in  germinating,  send  up  slender  stems. 

2.  Give  the  rule  for  depth  of  planting  for  these  two  types 
of  plants. 


74  HOW  SEEDS   "come   UP 

3.  How  do  onions  come  up  through  the  soil?  To  which 
type  of  plants  does  the  onion  belong? 

4.  What  is  the  chief  condition  of  the  soil  that  guides  us 
in  depth  of  planting? 

5.  Quack  grass  has  so  strong  a  growing  point  in  the  soil 
that  it  has  been  found  to  pierce  a  potato  in  the  ground. 
Why  does  this  make  it  a  particularly  harmful  weed? 


17.  IT  IS  WISE  TO  PLANT  THE  LARGEST  SEEDS. 

Illustrative  material:  Three  jars,  soil,  a  few  beans  and  clover 
seeds. 

Small  Seeds  Not  Strong — A  few  navy  beans  were 
planted  an  inch  deep  in  jar  No.  i ;  a  few  clover  seeds  were 
planted  the  same  depth  in  jar  No.  2 ;  and  a  few  clover 
seeds  were  planted  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep  in  jar  No.  3. 


123 

Fig.  33. —  Experiment  with  beans  and  clover  seed. 

As  appears  in  Figure  33  the  plantlets  from  the  clover 
planted  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep  and  from  the  beans 
have  come  up  well,  while  those  from  the  clover  planted 
an  inch  deep  have  not. 

Large  Seeds  are  Strong —  Every  perfect  seed  contains 
a  plantlet,  and  some  food  to  nourish  the  plantlet  during 
germination.     (See  Figure  34.)     The  larger  the  seed  is, 

75 


76 


IT  IS  WISE  TO  PLANT  THE  LARGEST  SEEDS 


Fic.  34. —  Diagram  of  a  seed. 


as  a  rule,  the  stronger  is  the  plantlet,  and  the  more  plenti- 
ful is  its  food  supply.     This  is  true  of  different  seeds  of 

the  same  kind  as  of  different  kinds 
of  seed.  The  bean  plantlets 
in  Figure  33  were  able  to  come 
up  through  an  inch  of  soil  be- 
cause they  were  well  supplied  with 
food  and  were  strong.  The 
clover  seeds,  as  compared  with  the 
beans,  are  very  small,  and  the 
clover  plantlets,  as  compared  with 
the  bean  plantlets,  are  very  weak. 
The  clover  plantlets  were  unable 
to  force  their  way  through  an 
inch  of  soil,  but,  as  we  see  by  look- 
ing at  jar  No.  3,  they  can  grow  through  a  quarter  inch 
of  soil.  As  a  rule,  the  larger  a  seed  is,  the  deeper  it  may 
be  covered  in  planting.  Like  all  rules,  however,  this  is 
subject  to  exceptions. 

Planting  Very  Small  Seeds. — As  we  learned  from  the 
last  lesson,  plantlets  that  bring  up  thick  seed  leaves  to  the 
surface  can  not  grow  through  so  much  soil  as  those  that 
do  not.  It  follows  that  the  small-seeded  plants  whose 
plantlets  bring  up  their  seed  leaves  must  have  their  seeds 
planted  in  the  least  depth  of  soil  of  all.  The  clover  plant 
belongs  to  this  class,  hence  clover  seed  must  be  planted 
very  shallow,  or  the  plants  will  not  come  up  well.  The 
seeds  of  tobacco  and  petunia  are  much  smaller  than  clover 
seed,  and  they  lift  their  seed  leaves  in  coming  up.  It  is 
unwise  to  cover  the  seeds  of  these  plants  at  all.  As  we 
learned  in  Lesson   14,  they  are  commonly  sown  on  the 


IT    IS    WISE   TO    PLANT    THE    LARGEST    SEEDS  77 

surface  and  pressed  into  the  soil,  the  surface  being  kept 
moist  by  frequent  watering. 

Profit  in  Planting  the  Largest  Seeds —  Gardeners  who 
grow  radishes  and  lettuce  under  glass  for  the  winter  mar- 
ket find  that,  when  they  sift  their  seed  and  plant  only  the 
largest,  their  crops  mature  so  much  more  evenly  than 
when  they  sow  the  seeds  without  sifting,  that  the  plants 
become  fit  to  sell  several  days  earlier.  It  is  sometimes 
possible  to  grow  one  extra  crop  in  the  winter  in  this  way. 

Reject  Poorly-formed  Seeds —  Farmers  pass  their  seed 
grain  through  a  fanning  mill,  to  take  out  the  smallest  and 
most  shrunken  kernels.  Many  reject  the  smaller  kernels 
from  the  tip  ends  of  their  ears  of  seed  corn.  By  growing 
their  crops  from  the  largest  seeds,  they  secure  a  larger 
yield  of  grain  than  they  would  if  they  planted  the  seeds 
without  sifting. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Every  perfect  seed  is  made  up  of  what  two  things? 

2.  Why  should  clover  seed  be  planted  very  shallow? 

3.  Why  do  farmers  pass  their  seed  grain  through  a 
fanning  mill? 

4.  What  is  the  advantage  to  the  gardener  of  planting 
only  the  largest  seeds? 

5.  Pick  out  all  the  largest  seeds  in  a  sample  of  radish 
seeds  and  plant  them  in  one  row.  Plant  the  small  radish 
seeds  in  another  row.  Which  row  first  produced  radishes 
large  enough  to  eat? 


la    REARING  PLANTS  FROM  BUDS. 

Illustrative  material:  A  potato  tuber,  cuttings  of  the  currant 
or  grape  vine,  a  cion  and  a  small  branch  of  the  apple  tree,  and 
a  bit  of  grafting  cloth. 

Roots  Come  from  Buds. —  We  have  now  learned  how 
to  rear  young  plants  by  planting  their  seeds.  Many  kinds 
of  plants  may  also  be  reared  from  buds.  Some  kinds  are 
reared    from  buds   more   often  than   from   seeds.     We 


-  vv.-* 


Fig.  35. —  A  layer. 


learned  in  Lesson  5  that  every  live  part  of  a  stem  ter- 
minates in  a  bud.  In  many  plants,  a  bud,  with  a  certain 
part  of  the  stem  beneath  it,  if  kept  for  a  time  in  a  favor- 
able place,  will  form  roots  of  its  own,  and  thus  will  be- 
come a  new  plant.  Pieces  of  the  roots  of  some  plants, 
as  the  plum  and  cherry,  if  given  a  good  chance,  may  also 
form  buds  on  each  piece,  which  will  develop  in  due  time 
into  leafy  stems. 

Layering. — One  of  the  simplest  ways  of  rearing  plants 
is  by  layering.  Without  being  cut  off,  one  or  more 
branches  of  a  plant  are  covered  with  soil.    Sometimes  the 

78 


REARING  PLANTS   FROM  BUDS 


79 


branches  are  bent  down  and  covered;  sometimes  the  soil  is 
piled  up  around  them.  (Figure  35.)  Branches  thus 
treated  are  called  layers.  It  is  better  not  to  cover 
the  tips  of  the  branches.  In  a  few 
weeks,  roots  will  grow  from  near  the  buds 
in  the  covered  parts  of  the  stems.  The 
stems  can  then  be  cut  off  below  the  roots 
and  be  planted  in  a  new  place.  The  cur- 
rant, gooseberry,  grape,  quince,  and  many 
other  plants,  may  be  propagated, — that  is, 
increased  in  number, — in  this  way. 

Propagation  by  Cuttings.  — A  second 
way  of  rearing  plants  from  buds  is  by  cut- 
tings. A  cutting,  which  is  a  portion  of  a 
stem  having  at  least  one  healthy  bud,  is 
planted  in  the  soil.  Roots  may  then  grow 
from  the  stem,  or  from  the  base  of  the  bud, 
while  the  bud  expands  into  a  leafy  stem. 
Cuttings  made  during  fall,  winter,  or  early 
spring,  are  called  dormant  cuttings.  (Fig- 
ure 36.)  The  grape,  currant,  orange, 
and  many  other  shrubs,  are  propagated  from 
dormant  cuttings.  The  potato  is  reared 
from  cuttings  of  the  tuber,  which  is  a  mod- 
ified stem.  Cuttings  of  woody  plants  may 
be  made  in  the  fall  or  spring,  from  wood 

^       ®'  Fig.    36. —  Cut- 

that  grew   the   summer   before.      They   are         t»ngs. 

commonly  planted  in  spring  in  mellow  soil,  up  to  their 
top  bud,  (Figure  37.)  Cuttings  of  some  plants,  es- 
pecially in  cold  climates,  are  better  made  in  the  fall,  then 
stored  in  moist  sand  or  soil,  and  planted  in  the  spring. 


8o 


REARING    PLANTS    FROM    BUDS 


Green  Cuttings. —  Most  plants  can  be  reared  from  so- 
called  green  cuttings.  (Figure  38.)  These  are  made 
from  a  tender  part  of  the  stem,  and  each  one  has  a  leaf  or 
a  part  of  a  leaf  attached.  The  leaf  is  left  on  to  prepare 
food  for  the  growth  of  roots.  The  cuttings  are  com- 
monly planted  in  a  greenhouse  bed  formed  of  clean,  rather 
coarse  sand  that  is  kept  wet.     The  sand  is  usually  kept  a 


Fig.  37. —  Rooted 
cutting. 


Fig.   .^8.—  a.   Cuttinc  of  chrysanthemum. 
b.   Rooted  cutting   of  coleus.     (Both   after   Bailey.) 


little  warmer  than  the  air  above  it  by  heating  pipes  below 
the.  bed.  The  cuttings  are  shaded  when  the  sun  shines. 
After  roots  form,  the  little  plants  are  potted  in  small  flower 
pots.  Green  cuttings  of  many  plants  will  form  roots  in 
a  saucer  of  coarse  sand,  in  a  sunny  window,  if  the  pores 
in  the  sand  are  kept  filled  with  clean  water. 

Propagatign  by  Grafting. —  A  third  way  of  rearing 
plants  from  buds  is  by  grafting.  This  is  chiefly  used  to 
cause  fruit  trees  to  bear  a  better  variety  of  fruit.     If  a 


REARING    PLANTS    FROM    BUDS 


farmer  has  a  tree  that  bears  poor  apples,  and  he  wishes 
it  to  bear  good  apples,  he  can  graft  the  tree  over.  To  do 
this,  he  cuts  a  few  young  twigs  from  some  tree  that  bears 
choice  apples,  and  grafts  them  into  his  tree,  and,  if  his 
work  succeeds,  his  tree  will  bear  the  choice  apples  in  about 
three  years.  The  tree  to  be  grafted  over  is  called  the 
stock  and  the  twigs  to  be  grafted  into  the  stock  are  called 
cions. 

Cutting  Cions —  The  cions  are  best  cut  late  in  fall  or 
early  in  spring  from  firm  wood  that  grew  the  summer  be- 
fore. Sometimes  they  are  not  cut 
until  they  are  needed  for  grafting. 
If  cut  early,  they  should  be  kept, 
until  warm  spring  weather,  packed 
in  a  box  with  plenty  of  rather  dry 
leaves,  in  a  cool,  somewhat  damp, 
cellar.  The  leaves  should  be 
weighted  down,  to  keep  them  close 
to  the  cions.  If  the  main  limbs  of 
the  tree  to  be  grafted  over  are  half  an 
inch  or  more  thick,  it  is  better  to 
use  the  cleft  graft;  other- 
wise, the  whip  graft  is 
better. 

Cleft     Grafting.—    To 

make  the  cleft  graft,  saw 

-  c  i  o  n  off  about  five  of  the  main 

ready  for 

cleft  graft-  limbs   that   reach   in   dif- 

ing. 

ferent     directions,     at     a 
place,  if  possible,  where  they  are  from  one  to  two  inches 
in  diameter.     Then  place  a  sharp  hatchet  or  wide  chisel 

G.  &  M.  Ag.  6. 


Fig.  40. — 
Cions  iu  cleft. 


Fig.     39. 


Fig.  41. —  Position  of  cions. 


82 


REARING    PLANTS    FROM    BUDS 


€ 


flatwise  across  the  center  of  the  end  of  one  of  the  stubs 
and  drive  it  in  until  the  stub  spHts  open  wide  enough  to 
admit  a  lead  pencil.  Next,  with  a  sharp  knife, 
cut  two  pieces  shaped  like  Figure  39  from  one 
of  the  cions,  each  piece  having  two  perfect  buds, 
pointing  as  shown.  Insert  these  into  the  split 
in  the  stock  as  shown  in  Figure  40.  Be  careful 
to  place  the  cions  in  the  cleft  so  that  the  line  be- 
tween the  bark  and  wood  on  the  stock  touches 
the  like  or  corresponding  line  on  the  outside  of 
the  cion,  as  shown  in  Figure  41.  Then  cover 
the  whole 
cut  end  of 
the  stock, 
the  cleft  at  ' 
the  sides, 
and,    also, 

Seft'graU    thc  tOp  Cud 
complete.     ^  f  ^  ^  6 

cions,    with    grafting 
(Figure  42.)      If  the 
to   be   grafted   is   less 
an  inch  in  thickness,  use  a 
single  cion  instead  of  two. 

Whip  Grafting.  —  In 
whip  grafting,  the  splice  is 
made  where  the  stock  and 
the  cion  are  of  about  the 
same  thickness.  The  cuts 
should  be  made  with  a  sharp  knife,  as  shown  in  Figure 
43,  a.    They  should  then  be  slipped  together,  as  shown 


wax. 

stub 
than 


Fig.  43.— Whip  grafting. 


REARING    PLANTS    FROM    BUDS  83 

in  Fig.  43,  b,  after  which  the  splice  should  be  tightly- 
wrapped  with  a  narrow  strip  of  grafting  cloth,  as  shown 
in  Figure  43,  c. 

Grafting  wax  is  made  by  melting  together  one  ounce 
of  beef  tallow,  two  ounces  of  beeswax,  and  four  ounces 
of  rosin.  Pour  the  melted  mass  into  water,  grease  the 
hands,  and  work  it,  when  it  is  cool  enough,  like  molasses 
candy,  until  it  is  the  color  of  manila  paper.  Grafting 
cloth  is  made  by  painting  melted  grafting  wax  on  thin 
muslin. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  How  are  plants  propagated  by  layering? 

2.  What  is  a  cutting?    What  two  kinds  are  there? 

3.  Describe  the  method  of  propagating  some  plant  by 
cuttings. 

4.  How  may  fruit  trees  be  made  to  bear  a  better  variety 
of  fruit? 

5.  Tell  how  to  make  a  cleft  graft. 

6.  How  is  grafting  wax  made?    How  is  it  used? 


19.     TRANSPLANTING. 

Illustrative  material:  A  tree  that  has  been  recently  dug  for 
transplanting.  Wash  the  roots  clean  and  let  the  pupils  see  how 
many  places  they  can  find  where  rootlets  have  been  broken  off. 
If  possible,  give  the  pupils  a  practical  demonstration  lesson  in 
tree  planting  out  of  doors. 

Method  of  Transplanting. —  It  is  sometimes  desirable  to 
remove  a  living  plant,  the  roots  of  which  are  growing  in 
the  natural  soil,  to  another  place.  This  process  is  called 
transplanting.  The  more  common  method  of  transplant- 
ing is  to  take  the  roots  or  a  part  of  them  out  of  the  soil, 
and  to  replant  them  in  a  new  place.  Sometimes  a  quan- 
tity of  the  soil  that  contains  the  roots  is  removed  to  the 
new  place. 

Rough  Handling   Destroys   Fine  Roots Figure  44 

shows  a  young  oat  plant,  the  roots  of  which  were  washed 
out  of  the  soil  by  a  gentle  stream  of  water.  Most  of  the 
roots  were  saved.  Figure  45  shows  another  oat  plant, 
with  which  an  attempt  was  made  to  draw  the  roots  from 
the  wet  soil.  Most  of  the  roots  were  torn  off.  The 
latter  picture  shows  about  what  happens  when  trees  or 
other  plants  are  taken  up  by  the  common  methods.  Only 
a  few  of  the  oldest  and  largest  roots  came  up  with  the 
plant. 

Rules  for  Transplanting —  We  learned  from  Lesson  5 
that  the  water  of  plants  is  absorbed  by  root  hairs  which 
grow  on  the  youngest  roots  only.  When  a  plant  is  taken 
up  for  transplanting,  as  shown  in  Figure  45,  its  power 

84 


TRANSPLANTING 


85 


for  taking  up  water  is  mostly  destroyed  until  some  new 
roots  are  formed.  Transplanting,  as  commonly  per- 
formed, is  therefore  a  dangerous  operation  for  the  plant. 
If  the  following  rules  are  observed,  however,  the  plant 
seldom  fails  to  grow. 


Fig.  44. —  Roots   of  oat 
plant. 


Fig.  45. —  Oat  plant  with 
fine  roots  broken  off. 


(  I )  Trees  and  shrubs  that  drop  their  leaves  in  autumn 
shoidd  he  transplanted  only  zvhile  their  leaves  are  off. 
We  learned  in  Lesson  3  that  the  water  taken  up  by  the 
roots  is  mostly  transpired  through  the  leaves.  A  tree  or 
shrub  without  leaves  needs  very  little  water,  because  it 
transpires  very  little.  Damage  to  the  roots  when  the 
leaves  are  off  is  far  less  serious  than  when  the  plant  is  in 
full  leaf.  In  climates  having  wet  falls  and  mild  winters, 
trees  and  shrubs  are  better  transplanted  in  the  fall;  in 
other  climates,  spring  is  the  better  time. 


86  TRANSPLANTING 

(2)  Take  up  the  plant  with  the  least  possible  harm  to 
the  roots.  With  trees  and  shrubs,  enough  earth  should 
be  removed  to  uncover  some  of  the  roots  to  their  ends  if 
possible.  The  younger  the  roots  are,  the  more  readily  do 
they  send  out  new  roots,  hence  as  many  of  the  younger 


Fig.  46. —  Bruised  root.  Fig.  47. —  Cleanly  cut  root. 

roots  should  be  retained  as  possible.     The  roots  should 
be  kept  moist  while  they  are  out  of  the  soil. 

(3)  Trim  of  broken  and  mangled  roots  with  a  sharp 
knife  before  replanting.  New  roots  start  more  freely 
from  a  smoothly  cut  end  than  from  a  rough  and  bruised 
one.    (Figures  46  and  47.) 

(4)  Cut  of  some  of  the  branches  before  replanting. 
Since  some  of  the  roots  have  been  lost  in  taking  the  plant 


TRANSPLANTING  87 

Up,  the  remaining  roots  will  not  often  be  able  to  supply 
so  much  water  as  is  needed  imless  some  of  the  branches 
are  also  removed.  There  is  more  danger  of  leaving  on 
too  many  branches  than  of  cutting  off  too  many. 

(5)  Make  the  hole  large  enough  to  receive  the  roots 
easily.  Bending  the  roots  to  make  them  enter  the  hole 
may  cause  disease.  Loosen  the  soil  in  the  bottom  of  the 
hole,  and  put  in  some  surface  soil.  Replant  the  tree  or 
shrub  at  least  as  deep  as  it  grew  before  it  was  taken  up. 

(6)  Dip  the  roots  in  zuater  before  replantitig.  This 
will  permit  the  moist  soil  to  come  in  the  closest  contact 
with  the  roots. 

(7)  Pack  the  moist  soil  closely  about  the  roots.  We 
learned  in  Lesson  14  that  packing  the  soil  about  planted 
seeds  promotes  germination.  For  the  same  reason,  pack- 
ing the  soil  about  the  roots  promotes  growth. 

(8)  //  the  soil  is  rather  dry,  add  a  pailful  or  two  of 
water  after  packing  the  soil  about  the  roots  and  before 
putting  in  all  the  dirt.  The  amount  of  water  will  depend 
upon  the  size  of  the  tree  or  shrub  and  the  dryness  of  the 
soil.  Put  in  the  rest  of  the  soil  without  treading  it  down. 
If  there  are  sods,  put  them  on  grass  side  down. 

(9)  Some  plants,  as  cabbage  and  tomato,  and  the 
evergreen  tree,  must  be  transplanted  in  leaf.  Such  plants 
shoidd  generally  be  shaded  for  a  time. 

(10)  Midch  the  soil  about  the  tree  or  shrub  if  the 
climate  is  subject  to  drought  in  spring. 


20.    HOW  TO  IMPROVE  PLANTS. 

Illustrative  material:  Show  a  number  of  individual  plants  of 
the  same  kind,  or  of  branches  from  as  many  plants,  and  require 
the  pupils  to  search  out  the  differences  shown  by  the  same  part 
in  different  specimens.  Show  also  a  number  of  ears  of  Indian 
corn  of  different  forms  and  let  each  pupil  pick  out  the  best  ear 
according  to  his  own  ideal.  Always  require  the  reasons  for 
the  choice. 

Plants  Not  Alike. —  If  we  go  out  into  a  field  of  ripe 
Indian  corn  and  try  to  find  two  corn  plants  that  are  alike 
in  all  respects,  we  shall  fail.  One  will  be  a  little  taller 
than  the  other;  one  will  have  a  thicker  stalk  than  the 
other ;  or  one  will  have  a  longer  ear  than  the  other.  If  we 
try  to  pick  out  from  a  pile  of  husked  corn  two  ears  that 
are  just  alike,  we  shall  fail'again.  One  ear  will  be  thicker, 
or  longer,  or  will  have  smaller  kernels,  than  the  other. 
We  shall  even  find  it  hard  to  select  two  kernels  from  the 
same  ear  that  are  just  alike.  Two  plants  rarely,  if  ever, 
grozv  just  alike. 

Select  Seeds  with  a  Purpose Although  two  plants 

rarely  grow  alike,  the  plants  that  grow  from  the  seed  of 
a  parent  plant  are  usually  more  nearly  like  the  parent  than 
they  are  like  any  other  plant.  For  example,  if  one  pea 
plant  in  a  row  bears  longer  and  more  slender  pods  than 
any  other,  the  plants  grov/n  from  the  seeds  in  these  long 
and  slender  pods  are  likely  to  produce  long  and  slender 
pods  also.  Some  of  them  will  probably  be  a  little  longer 
and  more  slender  than  any  of  the  parent  pods.     If  we 

88 


HOW    TO   IMPROVE    PLANTS 


89 


keep  on  planting  the  peas  from  the  longest  and  most 
slender  pods,  we  shall  by  and  by  have  a  variety  of  which 
the  pods  will  be  much  longer  and  more  slender  than  those 
of  common  peas.  Thus  we  can  change  a  variety  of  plant 
by  planting  year  after  year  the  seeds  from  only  those 
plants  that  shozv  some  definite  variation  in  a  marked 
degree. 

Improvement  by  Selection. —  Figure  48  shows  the  re- 
sult that  has  come  from  saving  seeds  of  the  sugar  beet 


Fig.  48. —  Per  cent  of  sugar  in  beets. 

from  only  those  plants  that  had  the  most  sugar  in  the 
juice.  When  the  beet  was  first  used  for  making  sugar, 
the  juice  from  the  sweetest  beets  had  only  about  eight 
per  cent  of  sugar  in  it  (Figure  48,  a)  ;  but,  by  testing 
the  juice  of  every  root,  and  saving  for  seed  only  those 
of  which  the  juice  contained  the  most  sugar,  the  amount 
of  sugar  has  slowly  been  increased  until  now  the  sweetest 


9©  HOW   TO   IMPROVE   PLANTS 

roots  contain  about  eighteen  per  cent  of  sugar  in  their 
juice  (Figure  48,  b). 

Consider  the  Plant  in  Selection. — We  learned  from 
Lesson  17  that  it  is  wise  to  plant  the  largest  seeds.  It  is 
also  wise  to  select  our  seeds,  as  far  as  possible,  from  the 
plants  that  suit  us  best.  The  farmer  should  select  his 
Indian  com  for  seed  from  only  those  plants  that  have  the 
kind  of  ear  and  stalk  that  he  would  Hke  to  have  in  his 
whole  field  the  next  year.  The  gardener  should  save 
his  tomato  seeds,  if  at  all,  from  only  the  fruits  that  suit 
him  best,  that  grow  on  the  plants  that  suit  him  best.  The 
plant  should  be  considered,  as  well  as  the  fruit. 

Hill  Selection  of  Seed  Potatoes. — The  value  of  consid- 
ering the  parent  plant  as  well  as  the  seed  is  shown  in  the 
hill  selection  of  seed  potatoes.  A  large  potato  may  come 
from  a  poor  hill,  in  which  it  was  the  only  good  one  out  of 
many  potatoes.  If  planted,  this  large  tuber  is  apt  to 
reproduce  not  its  own  qualities  but  those  of  the  poor  hill 
from  which  it  came.  For  this  reason  many  successful 
potato  growers  do  not  select  their  seed  potatoes  from  the 
bin,  but  take  them,  at  digging  time,  from  good  hills.  Thrifty- 
appearing  hills,  each  of  which  was  grown  from  a  single 
seed  piece,  are  dug  by  hand,  and  the  potatoes  of  each  hill  are 
placed  in  a  separate  pile.  The  desirable  hills  are  those  that 
produced  a  large  number  of  medium-sized  potatoes.  From 
these  standard  hills  the  seed  potatoes  are  selected.  After 
this  method  of  selection  has  been  carried  on  for  a  few  years 
nearly  all  of  the  hills  will  be  up  to  the  standard  of  the  few 
best  hills  at  the  beginning. 

To  Raise  the  Best  Crops. — If  the  farmer  is  careful  to 
select  his  seeds  from  the  best  plants  only,  his  crops  will 


HOW  TO  IMPROVE   PLANTS  9I 

tend  to  improve;  otherwise,  they  will  tend  to  become 
poorer.  His  land  not  only  should  be  well  fertilized  and 
cultivated,  but  should  be  planted  to  only  the  choicest 
seeds,  if  he  would  raise  the  finest  crops.  The  best  farmer 
or  gardener  is  not  satisfied  with  common  crops.  He 
aims  to  raise  the  best  of  everything,  and  to  raise  it  by 
the  best  methods. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  How  can  we  obtain  a  new  variety  of  a  plant? 

2.  How  has  the  large  increase  in  the  amount  of  sugar 
in  sugar  beets  come  about? 

3.  Give  the  reason  why  the  farmer  should  select  his  seed 
com  from  the  standing  com. 

4.  Explain  the  hill  selection  of  seed  potatoes. 


21.    THE  FLOWER  AND  ITS  PARTS. 

Illustrative  material:  As  many  flowers,  of  some  kind  that 
show  well  the  calyx,  corolla,  stamens  and  pistils,  as  there  are 
pupils  in  the  class;  a  good  pocket  lens.  The  larger  the  flowers 
are  that  show  these  parts  the  better. 

Necessity  of  Flowers. —  Many  flowers  are  among  the 
most  beautiful  and  delicate  of  natural  objects.  While- 
flowers  delight  us  by  their  beauty  and  fragrance,  they 
serve  a  very  important  use  both  to  man  and  to  the  plant 
that  bears  them.  Without  flowers,  plants  could  not  bear 
the  fruits  we  prize  so  much  for  food,  and  the  seeds. 
Without  seeds,  most  kinds  of  plants  would  soon  disap- 
pear, for  they  could  form  no  more  little  plants  to  take 
the  place  of  those  that  die. 

Parts  of  the  Flower —  Flowers  are  prettiest  when  left 
whole,  but  in  this  lesson  we  are  to  learii  the  names  and 
uses  of  the  different  parts  of  the  flower,  so  we  shall  need 
to  pull  the  flowers  to  pieces  somewhat.  A  flower,  when 
complete,  has  four  principal  parts,  each  of  which  has 
a  name  and  use.  These  principal  parts  are  composed  of 
smaller  parts,  each  of  which  also  has  its  name. 

The  Calyx  and  the  Sepal —  Figure  49  shows  a  cherry 
blossom,  cut  through  lengthwise.  At  the  base,  we  find 
a  green  part,  marked  C  in  the  figure,  called  the  calyx.  In 
some  flowers,  as  those  of  the  flax,  the  calyx  is  composed 
of  several  more  or  less  leaflike  parts,  each  of  which  is 
called   a  sepal.     In  the   cherry   flower,    the   sepals   are 

92 


THE   FLOWER    AND    ITS    PARTS 


93 


united  nearly  to  the  top.  The  calyx  is  green  in  most 
flowers,  but,  in  the  tulip  and  some  other  plants,  it  is  of 
another  color.  The 
calyx  forms  a  sort  of 
cup  that  supports  the 
rest  of  the  flower. 

The  Corolla  and  the 
Petals. —  The  more 
spreading  part  of  the 
cherry  blossom,  marked 

cor.  in  Figure  49,  is  the  ^'^-  49  —  Section  of  cherry  blossom. 

corolla.  In  the  cherry  flower,  the  corolla  consists  of  five 
distinct  parts  called  petals.  In  many  plants,  as  the  pump- 
kin and  the  morning  glory,  the  petals  are  united.  ( Fig- 
ure 50. )  The  corolla  is  usually  of  some 
other  color  than  green.  This  helps  to 
make  the  flower  more  easily  seen,  so 
that  insects  can  find  it. 

The  Stamens  and  their  Parts. —  In- 
side the  corolla  is  a  group  of  slender 
organs,  s.  s.  (Figure  49),  called  sia- 
mens.  Each  stamen  consists  of  three 
parts :  the  long  and  slender  portion  at- 
tached to  the  calyx  below,  called  the 
filament:  the  swollen  portion  at  the  top, 
called  the  anther;  and  a  dustlike  substance  found  on  or 
within  the  anther,  called  the  pollen.  The  office  of  the 
stamen  is  to  produce  the  pollen,  without  which  vital  seeds 
can  not  be  formed.  Some  flowers  have  more  stamens 
than  the  cherry  blossom,  while  others  do  not  have  so 
many. 


Fig.  50. —  Calyx  and 
corolla  of  Morning 
Glory. 


94  THE  FLOWER   AND    ITS    PARTS 

The  Pistil  and  Its  Parts —  The  columnlike  part  in  the 
center  of  the  flower  is  called  the  pistil.     This,  also,  con- 
;.—  stg   sists  of  three  principal  parts.     (Figure  51.) 
The  enlarged  top  is  called  the  stigma;  the 

sti    egg-shaped  base  is  called  the  ovary;  and  the 

slender  part  connecting  the  stigma  and  the 
ovary  is  called  the  style.     The  ovary  con- 

ov    tains  a  smaller  egg-shaped  part,  called  the 

ovule,   which   may   later  become  the   seed. 

Many  flowers  have  more  than  one  pistil,  and 

^t?i  lf~vvi\d    m^ny  ovaries  contain  more  than  one  ovule. 

o^r'^ovaT^;     The  pistil   forms   and  protects  the   ovules 

sfg,  sfigma!'     tintil  they  become  seeds. 

Pollination. —  When  the  pistil  is  mature,  a  drop  of  a 

sticky  liquid  forms  on  the  stigma,  so  that  a  grain  of  pollen 

that  happens  to  touch  it  sticks  fast.     If  the  pollen  grain 

is  from  the  same  flower  as  the  pistil,  or  from  another 

flower  of  the  same  kind,  it  puts  out  a  long  tube  that 

grows  through  the  style  into  the  ovary,  where  it  comes  in 

contact  with  the  ovule,  after  which  the  ovule  grows  into 

a  seed.      (Figure  52.)     The  alighting  of  the  pollen  on 

the  stigma  is  called  pollination.     If  no  pollen  grain  of 

the  same  kind  alights  on  the  stigma,  the  ovule  does  not 

become  a  seed,  but,  after  a  time,  it  perishes. 

Bees  and  Insects  Aid  in  Pollination Bees  and  some 

other  insects  visit  flowers  to  get  honey  or  pollen  from 
them  which  they  use  as  food.  In  entering  the  flowers, 
they  become  more  or  less  dusted  with  the  pollen,  and, 
as  they  rub  against  the  stigma,  they  aid  much  in  pollina- 
tion. These  insects  help  flowers  to  form  fruit  or  seeds, 
and  so  their  visits  to  the  flowers  are  very  useful. 


THE  FLOWER    AND    ITS    PARTS 


95 


Pollen  of  Another  Variety  of  Plant  Sometimes  Re- 
quired for  Fertilization  of  the  Ovule —  In  some  of  our 
fruits,  the  pollen 
from  one  flower 
will  not  form  fruit 
or  seed  in  the  pis- 
til of  the  same 
flower,  or  of  an- 
other flower  of  the 
same  variety.  The 
pistil  of  the  Bart- 
lett  pear  will  not 
often  form  a  fruit, 
if  it  receives  pollen 
only  from  Bartlett 
pear  flowers.  It 
must  receive  pol- 
len from  some 
other  kind  of 
pear  flower  than 
the  Bartlett.  So 
an  orchard  plant- 
e  d  entirely  t  o 
Bartlett  trees  sel- 
dom bears  much 
fruit.  In  planting 
an  orchard,  it  is 
wise,  as  a  rule,  to 
plant  trees  of  sev- 
eral varieties  to- 
gether. 


Fig.  52. —  Fertilization  of  the  ovule.  The  pol- 
len tubes  pass  through  the  stigma  and  style, 
finally  entering  the  cavity  o£  the  ovary. 


96  THE   FLOWER   AND   ITS   PARTS 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  is  the  object  of  the  flowers  of  plants? 

2.  What  are  the  most  important  parts  of  a  flower? 

3.  What  part  of  a  flower  becomes  the  seed? 

4.  What  is  pollination? 

5.  How  do  bees  and  some  other  insects  aid  pollination? 

6.  Of  what  service  to  clover  is  the  nectar  in  its  flowers? 

7.  Examine  a  complete  flower.    Find  the  calyx,  corolla, 
stamens,  and  pistil. 


22.     IMPERFECT  AND  PERFECT  FLOWERS. 

Illustrative  material:  Some  perfect  and  some  imperfect  flowers  of 
the  strawberry,  squash,  cucumber,  melon,  or  pumpkin;  an  ear  of 
Indian  corn. 

Imperfect  Flowers. — In  Lesson  21,  we  learned  that 
pollen  from  the  anthers  of  a  flower  must  find  its  way  to 
the  stigma  before  seeds  can  be  produced.  The  pollen 
need  not  come  from  the  same  flower  that  contains  the 
stigma.  If  it  comes  from  any  flower  of  the  same  kind, 
it  will  answer.  The  flowers  of  some  plants  do  not  con- 
tain both  stamens  and  pistils,  but  some  of  the  flowers 
contain  stamens  only,  and  are  called  staminate;  others 
contain  pistils  only,  and  are  called  pistillate.  Staminate 
and  pistillate  flowers  are  called  imperfect.  In  imperfect 
flowers,  the  pollen  that  reaches  the  stigma  always  comes 
from  some  other  flower. 

Examples  of  Perfect  and  Imperfect  Varieties Fig- 
ure  53   shows  two   strawberry   blossoms.     Notice   that 

flower  A  contains  sta- 
mens (S)  and  pistils 
(P).  This  is  a  perfect 
flower.  Flower  B,  how- 
ever, is  imperfect  — 
having  pistils  only. 
Strawberry  flowers  like 


A 


B 

Fig.  S3.— Strawberry  blossoms;  A,  perfect;    -^     ^Vlll     nOt     oftCtt     prO- 
B,  imperfect    (pistillate).  j^^^^     fj.^^j^     ^^^^j^^^     ^j^^^ 

receive  pollen  from  some  perfect  flower  like  A.     Some 
G  &  M.  Ag.  7.  97 


98 


IMPERFECT  AND  PERFECT  FLOWERS 


Fig.  54. — Indian  corn. 


varieties  of  strawberry  have  perfect  flowers; 
others  have  pistillate  flowers.  A  variety  that 
has  pistillate  flowers  will  not  bear  fruit  un- 
less plants  of  a  variety  that  has  perfect  flowers 
grow  close  by  to  furnish  the  pollen. 

Determine  before  Planting  the  Variety  of 
Flowers  of  a  Plant. — By  looking  at  the  flow- 
ers of  a  variety  of  strawberry,  we  can   tell 
whether  it  will  fruit  well  if  planted  alone. 
If  it  has  perfect  flowers,  it  will;  if  it 
has   imperfect   flowers,   it   will   not. 
Before  planting  a  bed  of  strawberry 
plants  we  should  find  out  whether  the 
variety  we  desire  to  plant  has  perfect 
or  imperfect  flowers.     If  the  plants 
are  not  in  bloom,  the  person  of 
whom  we  procure  them  will  gen- 
erally be  able  to  tell  us. 
Flowers   of   Indian    Com    are 
Imperfect. — The   Indian   com  plant 
has  imperfect  flowers.     The  plume- 
like "tassel"  that  grows  at  the  top 
of  the  stalk  contains  many  flowers, 
but    these    flowers    usually    contain 
only  stamens.     They  yield  pollen  in 
abundance.    Most  country  boys  and 
girls    have    seen    the   yellow   pollen 
dust  on  the  leaves  of  Indian  corn 
soon  after  the  tassels  form.     The 
young  ear  bears  the  pistils,  which 
are    the   so-called    "silk."      Each 


IMPERFECT    AND    PERFECT    FLOWERS 


99 


thread  of  the  "  silk,"  when  it  receives  its  grain  of  pollen, 
produces  a  kernel  on  the  ear.  If  one  of  the  threads 
fails  to  receive  its  grain  of  pollen,  a  kernel  on  the  ear 
will  be  missing.  By  looking  closely  at  an  ear  of  Indian 
corn,  we  can  tell  where  the  silk  was  attached  to  each 
kernel.      (Fig.  54.) 

Other  Examples  of  Imperfect  Flowers The  flowers 

of  the  melon,  cucumber,  squash,  and  pumpkin  are  imper- 


FiG.  55. —  Cucumber  blossoms;  A,  pistillate;  B,  staminate. 

feet.  By  looking  closely,  we  can  easily  see  the  two  kinds 
of  flowers.  Those  that  bear  the  pollen  are  like  B,  Figure 
55 ;  while  those  that  have  the  pistil  are  like  A,  Figure  55. 
Notice  how  many  points  of  difference  you  can  see  in 
these  two  flowers.  In  some  plants,  like  the  maple  tree 
and  the  hop  plant,  all  the  flowers  on  one  plant  bear  sta- 
mens only,  and  all  the  flowers  on  other  plants  bear  pistils 
only.  The  plants  that  bear  the  staminate  flowers  of 
course  never  produce  any  seed. 


lOO  IMPERFECT    AND    PERFECT    FLOWERS 

Cross  Fertilization —  When  the  pollen  of  one  flower 
fertilizes  the  ovules  of  another  flower,  the  action  is  called 
cross  fertilization.  This  is  one  of  the  ways  of  producing 
many  varieties  of  plants.  Cross  fertilization  is  often 
brought  about  by  the  wind  or  by  insects,  and  sometimes 
by  intention  of  the  gardener. 

Plant  Breeding —  By  crossing  certain  plants  with 
others  of  a  similar  kind,  and  carefully  collecting  the  seeds 
that  result,  new  and  improved  varieties  are  obtained. 
When  an  improved  variety  of  any  plant  is  obtained,  the 
seeds  from  the  plant  are  planted  and  selected  so  as  to 
make  a  distinct  breed. 

Great  progress  has  been  made  at  the  Experiment  Sta- 
tions in  making  valuable  breeds  of  wheat,  oats,  and  corn. 
The  yield  in  each"  case  has  been  increased  from  three  to 
ten  bushels  per  acre. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  are  imperfect  flowers? 

2.  Name  some  kinds  of  plants  that  have  imperfect 
flowers. 

3.  What  is  the  difference  between  pistillate  and  staminate 
flowers? 

4.  How  are  imperfect  flowers  fertilized? 

5.  How  may  flowers  be  cross  fertilized? 

6.  When  the  maples  are  in  bloom  look  for  some  trees 
that  bear  only  pistillate  flowers  and  others  that  bear  only 
staminate  flowers.  Make  the  same  observations  for  the 
Cottonwood  trees. 


23.  CORN. 

Illustrative  Material:  Mature  corn  plant  with  ear,  showing 
brace  roots,  tassel,  and  leaves.  Sample  ears  of  varieties  grown  in 
the  locality.    Seed  corn  testers. 

Importance  of  Com. — About  four  billion  bushels  of  corn 
were  produced  in  the  world  during  191 5.  The  United  States 
produced  about  three-fourths  or  very  nearly  three  billion 
bushels.  Seven  states, — Ohio,  Indiana,  Ilhnois,  Iowa, 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Missouri  produce  over  one-half  of 
the  total  com  crop  of  the  United  States.  They  make  up 
what  is  called  the  corn  belt.  (Figure  56.)  In  this  region 
corn  is  the  most  profitable  crop,  for  it  gives  the  largest 
yield  of  the  best  food  for  all  classes  of  animals. 

Kinds  of  Com. — Through  careful  selection  and  breeding, 
com  has  been  greatly  improved.  We  now  have  varieties 
of  com  that  mature  in  90  days;  others  require  150  days. 
The  color  of  the  kernels  may  be  red,  white,  yellow,  blue, 
black,  or  any  mixture  of  these.  Some  com  grows  only  two 
feet  high;  while  in  the  South  there  is  some  grown  that 
reaches  a  height  of  30  feet. 

There  are  four  important  classes,  or  types,  of  corn. 
These  are  the  dent,  flint,  sweet,  and  pop  corn. 

Dent  corn  is  the  most  important  type.  About  nine- 
tenths  of  all  com  grown  is  of  this  class.  It  gets  its  name 
from  the  hollow,  or  dent,  which  forms  in  the  end  of  the 
kernel  when  it  ripens.  Dent  com  has  a  large  ear  and  gives 
the  largest  yield.     The  kernels  are  long,  and  the  cob  is 


CORN  103 

small.  The  ear  has  many  rows,  usually  about  sixteen.  It 
is  easily  husked,  because  the  shank  of  the  ear  is  small. 

Flint  corn  has  a  long,  slender  ear  with  only  about  ten 
rows  of  kernels.  The  kernels  are  hard  and  flinty,  due  to 
the  large  proportion  of  horny  starch  in  them.  Flint  corn 
matures  earlier  than  the  dent  type,  and  therefore  can  be 
grown  farther  north.  The  stalks  produce  many  extra 
stalks,  or  "suckers."  This  makes  it  valuable  for  fodder,  but 
it  does  not  yield  so  much  grain  as  the  dent  type. 

Sweet  corn  is  grown  for  human  food.  Large  amounts 
of  it  are  grown  by  truck  gardeners,  who  market  it  as  a  table 
vegetable  when  it  is  green,  or  can  it  for  winter  use.  It  is 
very  rich  in  sugar.  The  kernels  shrink  when  mature  and 
appear  shriveled.  Sweet  corn  is  not  profitable  to  grow  as 
feed  for  animals. 

Pop  corn  has  small  ears,  and  very  hard  small  kernels. 
It  is  grown  only  for  human  food.  The  popping  of  the  ker- 
nels is  caused  by  expansion  of  the  moisture  by  heating 
until  the  hard  flinty  covering  of  the  kernels  breaks,  and 
they  suddenly  turn  inside  out. 

Primitive  Com. — There  is  a  type  of  corn  known  as  the 
primitive  corn,  because  it  is  thought  to  be  the  oldest  type, 
from  which  the  other  types  have  been  developed.  It  is 
sometimes  grown  as  a  curiosity.  Each  kernel  is  inclosed 
in  a  pod,  or  husk,  and  the  ear  thus  formed  is  also  inclosed 
in  husks.  Its  common  name  is  pod  corn,  but  it  is  sometimes 
called  squaw  corn. 

Soil  for  Com. — Corn  needs  a  soil  rich  in  nitrogen  and 
vegetable  matter.  It  usually  does  well  on  land  on  which 
clover  and  grasses  grew  the  year  before.  Because  sandy 
loam  soils  are  warmer  and  more  easily  cultivated  than 


I04  CORN 

heavy  clay  soils  they  make  good  corn  land.  The  soil 
should  be  compact  enough,  however,  and  should  contain 
enough  vegetable  matter  to  hold  a  good  supply  of  moisture; 
for,  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth,  corn  needs  much 
moisture  during  its  growing  period.  On  account  of  its 
many  and  strong  roots,  corn  can  make  good  use  of  coarse 
foods.    It  is,  therefore,  known  as  a  "coarse  feeder." 


Fig.  57. — Good  corn  land.    The  soil  pulverizes  readily  under  the  harrow. 

Fall  plowing  is  usually  best  for  corn.  The  soil  should  be 
well  worked  in  the  spring  and  made  free  from  weeds. 
Harrowing  and  disking  at  this  time  tend  to  warm  the  soil, 
prevent  evaporation,  and  destroy  many  weeds.  Manure 
can  profitably  be  spread  on  the  plowed  land  at  this  time, 
and  disked  into  the  soil. 

Good  Seed  Corn. — In  order  to  grow  a  large  crop  of  corn, 
the  farmer  must  have  good  seed  with  a  high  yielding  record. 
Good  seed  must  have  strong  vitality.  This  means  that  it 
will  not  only  grow,  but  will  produce  healthy  and  vigorous 
plants.    It  must  be  picked  early  in  the  fall.     Every  good 


CORN  105 

kernel  of  seed  com  has  in  it  a  live,  though  very  small  com 
plant.  This  plant  is  tender  and  easily  injured  unless  it  is 
kept  under  favorable  conditions.  Seed  com  that  is  not 
thoroughly  dry  before  cold  weather  comes  on  will  freeze 
and  thus  injure  the  little  plant  so  that  it  will  not  germinate. 
By  picking  the  ears  for  seed  in  the  field,  the  early  maturing 
kind  can  be  selected.  Seed  can  thus  be  selected  from 
perfect  plants  only.  Since  good  seed  means  a  good  crop 
of  com,  the  time  spent  in  selecting  the  seed  com  in  the 
field  is  profitably  employed. 


Fig.  58. — Disking  for  com.    The  disk  harrow  is  here  used  to  pulverize  the  soil  immediately 

after  plowing. 

Testing  Seed  Com. — We  have  learned  in  Chapter  15  how 
to  test  seeds  for  germination.  It  takes  about  fifteen  ears 
of  seed  corn  to  plant  an  acre,  and  with  a  yield  of  sixty 
bushels  to  the  acre,  each  ear  of  seed  corn  represents  about 
four  bushels  of  crop.  Each  ear  should  therefore  be  tested. 
A  germination  box  for  testing  100  ears  can  be  made  from 
inch  boards,  the  box  being  two  feet  square  and  five  inches 
deep,  inside  measurements.  About  three  inches  of  saw- 
dust, that  has  first  been  soaked  in  scalding  water  to  kill 


io6 


CORN 


molds,  is  covered  with  a  white  cloth  marked  off  into  two- 
inch  squares.  The  squares  are  numbered  to  correspond 
with  the  hundred  ears  to  be  tested.  About  six  kernels, 
taken  from  different  places  on  each  ear  to  be  tested,  are 
placed  in  a  square.  A  cloth  is  placed  over  the  kernels  to 
keep  in  the  moisture.  After  these  have  been  kept  moist 
in  a  warm  place  for  about  five  days,  they  should  be  exam- 
ined, and  the  ears  from  which  all  kernels  did  not  sprout 
well  should  be  rejected.  The  testing  should  be  done 
early  in  the  spring  before  time  for  planting. 

The  "rag-doll"  tester  consists  of  a  piece  of  cloth  about 
nine  inches  wide  and  five  feet  long.  Twenty  squares  are 
marked  and  numbered  near  the  center  of  the  strip.  After 
the  six  kernels  are  placed  on  each  square  it  is  rolled  up  from 
both  ends  and  kept  moist  and  warm.  When  several  of 
these  testers  are  kept  together,  they  do  not  dry  out  so 
fast  as  one  alone. 


Fig.  59. —  Rag-doll  seed-corn  tester.     Observe  the  "  corn-tree"  at  the  right. 


CORN  107 

Planting. — When  the  soil  is  getting  warm,  and  danger 
of  frost  is  past,  it  is  time  to  plant  corn.  This  is  from  the 
first  to  the  middle  of  May  in  the  corn  belt.  Corn  should 
be  run  through  a  grader  before  planting  in  order  to  remove 
the  very  small  and  extra  large  kernels.  This  will  give  more 
uniform  planting.  The  two-row  planter  is  used  almost 
entirely.  It  can  be  used  to  drill  the  corn,  that  is,  planting 
one  kernel  in  a  place  8  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  row,  or  it 
can  be  used  as  a  checkrower,  planting  about  three  kernels 
3  feet  6  inches  to  3  feet  8  inches  apart  each  way.  With 
rows  both  ways  there  is  a  better  chance  for  cultivation, 
but  where  the  land  is  free  from  weeds,  larger  yields  are 
secured  by  drilling  it.  Where  the  soil  is  moist,  corn  should 
not  be  planted  over  two  inches  deep.  In  very  dry  soils  in 
the  Southwest  corn  is  listed.  Listing  is  planting  corn  in 
the  bottoms  of  furrows,  so  as  to  get  the  kernels  where  the 
soil  is  moist. 

Frequent  Cultivation. — The  field  should  be  dragged 
before  the  corn  comes  up.  This  will  kill  many  small  weeds 
and  keep  the  top  soil  loose.  As  soon  as  the  corn  is  up  so 
that  the  rows  can  be  seen,  the  corn  cultivator  should  be 
used.  At  first,  while  the  roots  have  not  spread  out  much, 
corn  can  be  cultivated  deep;  but  later,  when  roots  fill  the 
soil  between  the  rows,  cultivation  should  be  shallow. 
The  ground  should  be  stirred  often  in  order  to  keep  moisture 
from  evaporating,  and  to  destroy  weeds.  Cultivation  also 
liberates  plant  food  by  warming  the  soil  and  letting  the 
air  get  into  it. 

How  Corn  Is  Harvested. — Where  corn  is  grown  for  the 
grain,  the  ears  are  husked  from  the  standing  stalks  in  the 
field.    This  is  done  either  by  hand  or  by  machine.    Where 


io8 


CORN 


large  areas  are  grown,  and  corn  stands  up  well,  the  machine 
is  a  saving.  With  hand  picking  a  better  job  can  be  done. 
The  ears  are  stored  in  well  ventilated  cribs  to  dry. 

The  cheapest  way  to  harvest  corn  is  "hogging  it  off." 
This  is  done  by  turning  the  hogs  into  a  field  when  the  corn 
is  ripe,  and  letting  them  gather  the  crop.  Where  corn  is 
to  be  hogged  off,  rape,  clover,  or  some  other  succulent  crop 
is  planted  between  the  rows  at  the  last  cultivation.  This 
adds  variety  and  gives  more  feed  to  the  acre.  Hogging  off 
corn  is  becoming  more  common  every  year. 


Fig.  6o. — Cutting  corn  with  a  Lc». ,  ^o>.^. .     This  machine  cuts  the  stalks  and  binds  them  into 
bundles.     It  does  not  husic  the  corn. 


If  the  fodder,  as  well  as  the  grain,  is  to  be  used  for  feed- 
ing, corn  is  cut  when  it  begins  to  ripen.  It  is  either  stored 
in  shocks  in  the  field  until  cured,  or  cut  up  fine,  when  still 
green,  and  put  in  a  silo.    Cured  corn  stalks  with  the  ears 


CORN 


109 


are  known  as  fodder  corn.     The  stalks  without  the  ears 
are  called  corn  stover. 

The  Silo  and  Silage.— An  air-tight  receptacle  or  building, 
for  the  preservation  of  succulent  fodder  is  called  a  silo. 
The  fodder  preserved  in  a  silo  is  known  as  silage.  Other 
plants,  like  clover,  alfalfa,  oats,  peas,  or  almost  any  other 
green  plant,  can  be  used, 
but  corn  is  the  most  com- 
mon plant  used  for  silage. 
When  the  ears  commence 
to  harden  the  whole  plant  decayed 

*^  SILAGE" 

is  cut  up  very  fine,  and 
packed  thoroughly.  It  is 
important  to  pack  the  si- 
lage well  to  keep  out  the  air. 
If  air  is  admitted,  the  si- 
lage decays  and  thus  be- 
comes unfit  for  food.  The 
silage  at  the  top  of  a  silo 
decays  and  forms  a  pasty 
mass,  which  prevents  the 
air  from  passing  through 
to  the  material  below. 
This  thin  layer  of  decayed  silage  serves  as  an  air-tight 
cover  for  the  silo. 

Fodder  corn  loses  nearly  one-fourth  in  digestible  matter 
when  cured  in  the  field.  In  a  deep,  well-built  silo,  the  loss 
is  less  than  one-tenth.  Silage  is  more  palatable  than  dry 
fodder,  and  animals  will  eat  more.  Even  the  harder  and 
coarser  parts  of  the  stalk,  because  cut  when  green,  are 
eaten.    The  feeding  value  of  an  acre  of  corn  when  fed  in 


Fig.  61. — Section  of  a  silo.    Feeding  is  done  from 
the  top. 


no 


COEN 


the  form  of  silage  is  double  that  when  cut  and  cured  in 
the  field.  In  this  way  fewer  acres  are  necessary  to  produce 
fodder  for  the  same  amount  of  stock.  It  takes  less  room 
to  store  silage  than  hay  or  dry  fodder,  because  it  is  well 
packed.  Silage  weighs  about  forty  pounds  a  cubic  foot 
in  the  silo. 

Round  silos,  with  a  smooth  wall  on  the  inside,  allow  the 
best  packing,  and  are  stronger  than  square  silos.  A  silo 
should  be  deep  in  order  to  be  well  packed,  for  the  greater 
pressure  will  force  out  the  air  better.  Silos  are  built  either 
of  brick,  cement,  or  wood.  They  may  be  built  above  the 
ground  or  partly  in  the  ground.  They  are  usually  placed 
close  to  the  barn  so  that  feeding  may  be  made  convenient. 

Number  of  Tons  of  Corn  Silage  in  Round  Silos 


] 

NSIDE  DiAMETEF 

t IN  Feet 

Depth  in 

Feet 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

25 

39 

56 

77 

90 

116 

143 

173 

26 

40 

58 

80 

97 

123 

152 

184 

27 

42 

60 

83 

103 

130 

160 

194 

28 

43 

63 

86 

108 

137 

170 

204 

29 

45 

65 

89 

114 

144 

178 

215 

30 

47 

67 

92 

119 

151 

187 

226 

31 

48 

70 

95 

125 

158 

195 

236 

32 

50 

72 

98 

130 

166 

205 

247 

33 

52 

74 

101 

136 

173 

216 

257 

Com  Products. — As  food  for  all  animals  on  the  farm, 
corn  is  the  most  nutritious  crop.  A  pound  of  com  meal  is 
worth  more  as  feed  than  a  pound  of  bran,  oats,  or  barley. 
Corn  silage  is  becoming  more  important  as  a  feed  for  all 
animals  on  the  farm.  Corn  has  other  uses  besides  its  use 
as  food  for  farm  animals.  Com  meal,  com  starch,  corn 
sirup,  hominy,  and  breakfast  foods  made  from  com  are 


CORN  1 1 1 

all  important  foods  for  man.  The  oil  pressed  out  of  the 
grain  when  refined,  may  also  be  used  as  a  food.  It  is  used 
in  paint,  for  lubricating,  and  even  for  making  rubber. 
Alcohol  and  starch  for  clothes  are  other  products  of  the 
grain.  Corn  cobs  are  made  into  pipes.  Husks  are  used 
for  packing  and  in  mattresses.  Paper  is  made  from  corn 
stalks.  The  pith  of  the  stalk  is  used  as  packing  in  the 
walls  of  battleships. 

Com  Enemies. — Gophers,  crows,  and  blackbirds  like 
corn,  and  will  sometimes  dig  out  and  eat  the  seed  from 
large  patches  just  after  the  planting.  Cutworms  cut  the 
young  com  plants  off  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
They  are  grayish  brown  in  color,  and  about  an  inch  long. 
Where  they  are  numerous,  they  sometimes  destroy  the 
whole  crop  of  young  corn  plants  in  a  field.  Fall  plowing 
will  destroy  many  cutworms.  Wireworms  and  white  grubs 
destroy  the  roots  'oi  com  planted  in  sod  land.  Fall  plowing 
prevents  them  from  increasing  in  number,  and  is  the  only 
practical  remedy. 

The  root  louse  on  corn  becomes  a  great  pest  if  corn  is 
grown  year  after  year  on  the  same  land.  Rotation  of  crops 
and  thorough  cultivation  so  as  to  destroy  all  weeds  that 
may  harbor  them  will  effectively  destroy  the  root  louse. 
Chinch  bugs,  which  suck  the  juice  from  the  corn  plant 
above  the  ground,  can  also  be  prevented  by  rotation  of 
crops  and  weed  destruction.  Army  worms  and  grasshoppers 
eat  corn,  as  well  as  any  other  green  plants.  Fall  plowing 
will  destroy  these  and  many  other  insects  that  may  injure 
corn. 

Corn  smut  is  a  fungous  parasite  that  lives  in  the  growing 
plant,  and  weakens  it  by  absorbing  the  juices  that  should 


112  CORN 

nourish  the  corn  plant.  It  forms  large,  black  masses  of 
spores  that  can  be  seen  on  the  stalk,  leaves,  or  ear.  Some- 
times the  whole  ear  is  a  black  mass  of  spores.  The  spores 
live  over  winter  in  the  soil  or  in  manure.  Corn  smut  can 
not  be  cured.  It  can  be  prevented  by  picking  the  smut 
masses  and  burning  them. 

QUESTIONS   AND   EXERCISES. 

1.  What  states  constitute  the  corn  belt  of  the  United 
States? 

2.  What  are  the  four  important  types  of  corn? 

3.  Which  type  of  corn  can  best  be  grown  in  a  northern 
region?    Why? 

4.  How  does  freezing  injure  seed  corn  before  it  is  dry? 

5.  Tell  how  to  test  100  ears  of  seed  com  for  germination. 

6.  When  should  corn  be  planted? 

7.  What  advantage  is  there  in  planting  torn  irf  rows  both 
ways? 

8.  Why  should  corn  be  cultivated? 

9.  What  is  the  difference  between  fodder  corn  and  corn 
stover? 

10.  Give  some  reasons  why  a  farmer  should  have  a  silo. 

11.  Name  five  manufactured  products  from  corn. 

12.  What  is  corn  smut  and  how  can  it  be  prevented? 

13.  Study  the  map  on  page  102.  Account  for  the  low 
yield  of  corn  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States. 

14.  Study  the  table  on  the  following  page  and  show  the 
yield  of  corn  by  states  by  placing  on  an  outline  map  of  the 
United  States  a  heavy  black  dot  for  each  10,000,000  bushels. 

For  example,  the  yield  of  Illinois  will  be  represented  by 
37  dots,  that  of  Iowa  by  30  dots. 


CORN 


"3 


Production  of  Corn  in  United  States  in  191 5 
IN  Thousands  of  Bushels 

(From  Yearbook  of  Agriculture) 


Maine 656 

New  Hampshire  .  .  .  990 

Vermont 2,256 

Massachusetts 2,304 

Rhode  Island 516 

Connecticut.  ......  3,250 

New  York 24,200 

New  Jersey 10,830 

Pennsylvania 58,520 

Delaware 6,615 

Maryland 24,850 

Virginia 60,562 

West  Virginia 25,200 

North  Carolina ....  60,900 

South  Carolina  ....  35,145 

Georgia 64,950 

Florida 12,000 

Ohio 153.550 

Indiana. 190,950 

Illinois 374,400 

Michigan 56,000 

Wisconsin 40,825 

Minnesota 64,400 

Iowa 298,500 

Missouri 191,750 

G.  &M.Ag.  8. 


North  Dakota 9,800 

South  Dakota 94,250 

Nebraska 213,000 

Kansas 172,050 

Kentucky 105,000 

Tennessee 93,150 

Alabama 66,300 

Mississippi 67,450 

Louisiana 45, 100 

Texas 166,850 

Oklahoma 112,100 

Arkansas 62,100 

Montana 1,960 

Wyoming 875 

Colorado 11,280 

New  Mexico 2,730 

Arizona 600 

Utah 442 

Nevada 35 

Idaho 770 

Washington 1.053 

Oregon 1,155 

California 2,624 

Total .  .2,994,793 


114  CORN 

HOME  PROJECTS. 

1.  Ear-to-Row  Method  of  Improving  Com. — First  Year. 

— Select  25  of  the  best  seed  ears  that  have  been  found  to 
germinate  well.  Number  each  ear.  Shell  one-half  the 
kernels  from  each  ear  and  place  them  in  envelopes  that 
are  numbered  the  same  as  the  ears.  Keep  the  unshelled 
halves  where  they  are  safe  from  mice.  Mark  off  50  rows 
about  8  rods  long  and  number  them  from  i  to  50.  This 
seed  plot  should  have  rich  and  uniform  soil.  Plant  kernels 
from  ear  No.  i  in  row  No.  i  and  row  No.  26;  plant  corn 
from  ear  No.  2  in  row  No.  2  and  row  No.  27;  plant  corn 
from  ear  No.  3  in  row  No.  3  and  No.  28.  Proceed  in  this 
way  until  the  50  rows  are  planted.  Give  the  com  good 
care  during  the  summer.  When  the  corn  is  ripe,  husk  and 
weigh  the  crop  of  corn  from  each  row  separately.  Seed 
corn  for  planting  in  the  field  should  be  selected  from  the 
high  yielding  rows.  The  unshelled  halves  of  the  highest 
yielding  ears  should  be  saved  for  the  second  year. 

Second  Year. — Select  a  seed  plot  away  from  other  corn 
far  enough  so  pollen  can  not  be  blown  across.  This  dis- 
tance should  be  about  40  rods.  Supposing  that  the  two 
highest  yielding  ears  were  No.  12  and  No.  18;  these  should 
be  used  for  the  second  year's  planting.  Make  the  rows 
4  rods  long;  then  4  rows  can  be  planted  from  each  unshelled 
half.  Plant  kernels  from  ear  No.  12  in  rows  i,  3,  5,  and  7, 
and  from  ear  No.  18  in  rows  2,  4,  6,  and  8.  The  tassels 
from  rows  i,  3,  5,  and  7  should  be  removed  as  quickly  as 
they  appear.  The  pollen  from  the  tassels  in  rows  2,  4,  6, 
and  8  will  therefore  fertilize  the  kernels  on  the  ears  borne 
by  the  plants  in  the  detasseled  rows.    Seed  should  be  se- 


CORN  115 

lected  from  the  detasseled  rows.  This  gives  pedigreed  corn, 
because  the  parentage  is  known  on  both  sides.  The  yield 
of  com  may  be  increased  several  bushels  to  the  acre  by 
using  seed  selected  and  bred  by  this  method. 

2.  Acre  Yield. — Select  an  acre  of  good  com  land. 
Fertilize  it  and  prepare  it  well.  Pick  out  the  best  seed 
corn,  about  15  ears,  and  test  them  for  germination,  so  that 
the  seed  selected  is  sure  to  grow  well.  Plant  4  kemels  in  a 
hill  and  thin  to  three  plants  when  well  up.  Give  it  the 
best  care  during  the  summer.  In  the  fall,  husk  the  com 
and  weigh  it,  allowing  70  pounds  of  ears  to  a  bushel. 
Compare  this  yield  with  the  average  yield  of  the  rest  of  the 
field. 

3.  Determining  Stand  of  Com  in  a  Field. — Select  10 
rows  in  dififerent  places  across  the  field.  Count  the  number 
of  hills  in  each  row  if  all  had  been  planted.  Next  count 
the  number  of  hills  with  number  of  stalks,  the  number  of 
hills  with  I  stalk,  the  hills  with  2  stalks,  and  the  hills  with 
3  stalks.  Count  those  with  more  than  3  stalks  with  those 
with  3  stalks.  Estimate  how  many  stalks  all  the  10  rows 
would  have  if  every  hill  had  3  stalks.  Find  how  many 
stalks  were  lacking,  that  is,  how  many  stalks  there  are  on 
the  basis  above  given.  If  the  10  rows  had  a  total  of  3,600 
hills,  in  a  perfect  stand,  or  ipo  per  cent,  there  would  be 
10,800  stalks  in  them. 


24.  WHEAT. 


Illustrative  Material:  Sample  of  heads  and  grain  of  varieties  of 
wheat  grown  in  the  locality.  Wheat  straw  aflfected  with  black  rust, 
if  possible;  and  bunt,  or  smut  balls. 

Wheat  Types. — There  are  four  important  types,  or 
classes,  of  wheat  in  the  United  States.  The  most  important 
of  these  is  the  bread  wheat  type.  This  includes  the  Fife, 
Bluestcm,  and  hard  and  soft  winter  wheats.     The  Durum 


F1G.62.— Bread  wheat  types.    From  left  to  right  the  kinds  are  Turkey  Red,  Fife,  Velvet  Chaff, 

and  Bluestem. 

116 


WHEAT  117 

wheats,  another  class,  have  very  hard  grains  and  are 
adapted  to  dry  ch'mates.  This  type,  also  known  as  Maca- 
roni wheat,  is  becoming  more  and  more  important  in  the 
West  and  in  Canada.  Another  type,  known  as  the  Club 
wheat  type,  has  short,  stiff  straw,  short,  compact  head,  and 
soft  grain.  It  is  grown  on  the  Pacific  slope,  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  where  it  may  be  left  standing  several 
weeks  after  it  is  ripe.  In  the  Emmer  type,  the  grain  does 
not  shell  out  easily  from  the  hull  and  the  stems  are  pithy 
instead  of  hollow  as  they  are  in  ihe  other  three  types. 
This  wheat  is  grown  largely  in  Russia.  In  this  country 
farmers  use  it  mostly  for  cattle.  It  does  well  on  dry 
land. 

Other  types  of  little  importance  in  this  country  are 
Eincorn,  Spell,  Polish  wheat,  and  Poulard  wheal. 

The  Soil. — Wheat  is  a  delicate  feeder.  It  has  finer  and 
shorter  roots  than  corn,  therefore  it  is  important  to  have 
the  soil  well  pulverized  on  top  and  rich  in  available  plant 
foods.  The  seed  bed  should  be  loose  on  top  and  firm  be- 
neath, so  that  moisture  may  rise  to  the  roots  by  capillarity. 
It  should  have  a  good  supply  of  organic  matter  and  plenty 
of  moisture  available  at  the  time  of  rapid  growth.  Clay 
loams  seem  to  be  better  than  very  sandy  soils,  because 
they  do  not  dry  out  so  fast.  Disked  corn  land  makes  a 
good  wheat  field  when  well  pulverized.  In  Minnesota  and 
neighboring  states  wheat  is  sown  in  the  spring,  not  in  the 
fall  as  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  For  spring 
wheat,  fall  plowing  allows  early  spring  planting,  which  is 
important  in  order  that  wheat  may  develop  a  good  root 
system  in  cool  weather.  Early  planting  tends  to  prevent 
summer  rusts;  it  also  lessens  the  probability  of  having  hot, 


WHEAT 


119 


dry  weather  during  the  ripening  season,  a  condition  harm- 
ful to  wheat. 


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F1G.64. — Fall  plowing  for  wheat.    Observe  the  evenness  with  which  the  soil  is  being  turned. 

The  Seed  and  Planting.— It  pays  well  to  select  the  seed 
wheat  carefully.  It  should  be  run  through  a  fanning  mill 
that  selects  the  largest  and  heaviest  kernels.  This  will  also 
remove  the  weed  seeds.  Rust-reSistant  varieties  should  be 
selected.  Before  planting  the  seed  should  be  treated  for 
smut. 

Wheat  may  be  sown  broadcast,  or  drilled  in  rows  about 
six  inches  apart.  When  the  seed  is  drilled  it  can  all  be 
planted  at  a  more  uniform  depth,  and  covered  better.  It 
should  not  be  planted  over  two  inches  deep  where  there  is 
plenty  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  About  6  to  8  pecks  of  seed 
is  a  good  quantity  to  plant  to  the  acre.  Early  planting  of 
spring  wheat  gives  a  longer  season  of  growth  and  keeps 


I20 


WHEAT 


the  wheat  from  suffering  so  much  from  rusts  and  hot 
weather.  Wheat,  after  corn,  in  a  rotation  gives  good 
results.  Grass  seeds  planted  with  wheat  do  better  than 
with  oats,  because  they  get  more  light  and  moisture.  The 
oats,  having  more  leaves,  give  more  shade  and  transpire 
more  than  wheat. 


Fig.  65. — Cutting  wheat  with  a  binder.    The  crop  is  heavy  as  is  shown  by  the  numerous 

bundles. 

Harvesting. — Wheat  is  cut  and  tied  into  bundles  with 
a  binder.  If  left  too  long  before  cutting,  it  will  shatter, 
thus  losing  much  of  the  grain.  The  milling  value  is  also 
better  when  the  wheat  is  cut  before  it  becomes  too  ripe. 
The  cut  grain  is  shocked,  with  one  or  two  bundles  placed 
on  top  as  "caps,"  for  protection  from  rains.  It  may  be 
threshed  out  of  shocks  if  the  weather  is  good ;  otherwise  it  is 


WHEAT  121 

stacked  to  keep  it  secure  from  the  weather  until  threshing 
time.  It  should  be  left  stacked  at  least  three  weeks  before 
threshing  to  give  it  time  to  go  through  the  sweating  process. 
After  about  three  weeks,  the  moisture  has  evaporated  and 
the  grain  has  then  a  bright  color.  When  threshed,  it  is 
stored  in  bins,  either  on  the  farm  or  in  elevators,  from 
whence  it  is  marketed. 

Uses.— The  chief  use  of  wheat  flour  is  for  bread  making. 
The  white  flour  most  commonly  used  is  made  by  grinding 
the  wheat  between  steel  rollers  until  very  fine.  It  is  next 
bolted,  that  is,  it  is  passed  through  very  fine  sieves,  the 
bran  and  coarse  parts  being  thus  removed.  Graham  flour 
has  the  bran  in  it,  that  is,  it  is  unbolted.  Flour  from  hard 
wheat  makes  the  lightest  bread.  Soft  wheat  flour  is  used 
for  crackers,  cake,  and  pastry. 

Macaroni  and  some  breakfast  foods  are  also  made  from 
wheat.  The  manufacture  of  these,  especially  of  macaroni, 
is  increasing  in  this  country  because  of  the  increase  in 
Durum  wheat  production. 

Shorts  and  bran  and  wheat  screenings  are  milling  by- 
products used  for  stock  feeding.  Red  dog,  a  very  low  grade 
of  flour,  is  also  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  straw  is  used  largely  for  bedding  and  as  a  fertilizer 
on  the  farm.  It  is  also  used  in  making  straw  hats,  mat- 
tresses, door  mats,  and  paper. 

Enemies  of  Wheat. — Where  wheat  has  been  grown  for 
many  years,  it  becomes  subject  to  insect  enemies  and 
diseases.  The  Hessian  fly,  a  small,  two-winged  insect,  often 
does  a  great  deal  of  damage  to  winter  wheat.  This  fly  lays 
its  first  brood  of  eggs  about  September  first.  These  hatch 
into  larvae  in  about  a  week.     The  larvae  live  over  the 


122  WHEAT 

winter  in  a  dormant,  or  quiet  state,  known  as  the  "flaxseed 
stage,"  because  they  look  like  the  seeds  of  flax.  In  May, 
these  hatch  out  into  flies.  These  flies  lay  the  second  brood 
of  eggs  which,  in  turn,  produce  the  larvae  that  injure  the 
wheat  crop.  They  attack  the  young  wheat  plant  just 
below  the  ground,  three  or  four  being  sufficient  to  kill  the 
plant.  They  do  this  by  sucking  the  juice  from  the  plant. 
Fall  plowing,  burning  the  stubble,  and  rotation  of  crops 
are  helpful  in  controlling  this  pest. 

Chinch  bugs,  when  present  in  great  numbers,  do  much 
damage  to  the  wheat  crop  in  dry  seasons.  They,  hke  the 
Hessian  fly,  suck  the  juice  from  the  plant.  They  can  be 
controlled  by  keeping  rubbish  and  weeds  along  fences 
cleaned  out. 

The  wheat  midge  is  a  small  fly  whose  larva  sucks  the 
juice  from  the  young. wheat  grains,  thus  causing  them  to 
shrivel.  Deep  plowing  in  the  fall  will  prevent  them  from 
living  over  winter. 

During  hot  and  damp  seasons  rusts  sometimes  cause 
great  loss.  These  are  fungous  diseases  that  grow  from 
spores.  They  can  be  seen  on  the  stem  as  little  black  spots, 
or  on  the  leaves  as  red  spots.  They  like  a  wet,  warm 
summer.  No  remedy  for  this  disease  has  been  discovered, 
therefore  the  best  preventive  is  to  select  varieties  of  wheat 
that  will  withstand  it. 

Smut,  another  fungous  disease,  may  do  a  great  deal  of 
damage  to  the  wheat  crop.  But  since  it  can  be  controlled 
by  seed  treatment  it  is  not  so  much  to  be  dreaded.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  smut.  The  stinking  smut,  or  bunt,  of 
wheat,  can  be  prevented  by  moistening  the  seed  with  a  so- 
lution containing  one  pint  of  formaldehyde  (40%  pure)  and 


WHEAT  123 

about  50  gallons  of  water.  The  loose  smut,  however,  can 
not  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  this  solution.  It  is  there- 
fore best  to  get  seed  that  is  known  to  be  free  from  the  loose 
smut. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Where  are  the  Durum  wheats  mostly  grown? 

2.  For  what  is  Emmer  mostly  grown  in  this  country? 

3.  What  are  the  leading  wheat  producing  states?  (See 
page  124.) 

4.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  the  seed  bed  well  pul- 
verized on  top  for  wheat? 

5.  What  advantage  is  it  to  spring  wheat  to  have  it  planted 
early? 

6.  How  should  seed  wheat  be  selected? 

7.  Why  do  grass  seeds  planted  with  wheat  do  better 
than  with  oats? 

8.  What  advantages  are  there  in  stacking  wheat  over 
threshing  out  of  shocks? 

9.  How  is  white  flour  made? 

10.  What  kind  of  flour  makes  the  lightest  bread? 

11.  For  what  is  wheat  straw  used? 

12.  How  does  the  Hessian  fly  damage  the  wheat  crop? 

13.  How  may  wheat  smuts  be  prevented? 

14.  Chew  some  wheat  kernels  for  a  long  while.  The 
sticky  gum  that  you  get  is  the  part  that  makes  wheat  flour 
good  for  bread  making.    It  is  called  gluten. 

15.  Study  the  table  on  the  next  page  and  show  the  yield 
of  wheat  by  states  by  placing  on  an  outline  map  of  the 
United  States  a  heavy  black  dot  for  each  5,000,000  bushels. 
In  this  table  a  few  states  are  not  listed  because  of  the  small- 
ness  of  their  yield  of  wheat. 


124 


WHEAT 


Production  of  Wheat  in  United  States  in  1915 
IN  Thousands  of  Bushels 

(From  Yearbook  of  Agriculture) 


Maine 112 

Vermont 30 

New  York 11.875 

New  Jersey 1.560 

Pennsylvania 24,605 

Delaware 1,875 

Maryland 10,272 

Virginia 16,974 

West  Virginia 4.500 

North  Carolina.  .  .  .  9,810 

South  Carolina  ....  2,430 

Georgia 3,575 

Ohio 40.194 

Indiana 45.580 

Illinois 53.200 

Michigan 20,448 

Wisconsin 4,662 

Minnesota 70,870 

Iowa 18,985 

Missouri 34.108 

North  Dakota 151,970 

South  Dakota 63,762 


Nebraska 71,018 

Kansas 106,538 

Kentucky 9.900 

Tennessee 9.030 

Alabama 1,200 

Mississippi 100 

Texas 25,575 

Oklahoma 38,860 

Arkansas 2,750 

Montana 42,180 

Wyoming 3,315 

Colorado 13,770 

New  Mexico 1.976 

Arizona i  ,092 

Utah 8,225 

Nevada 1,660 

Idaho 18,730 

Washington 51.420 

Oregon 20,025 

California 7.040 

Total 1,025,801 


26.    CROPS  AND  WEEDS. 

Illustrative  material:  Samples  of  several  of  the  most  trouble- 
some weeds  of  the  vicinity.  Drill  the  pupils  until  they  can  name 
them  at  a  glance. 

Weeds  Not  a  Curse — Weeds  are  plants  that  persist  in 
attempting  to  grow  where  they  arc  not  wanted.  It  is 
Nature's  plan  to  have  the  earth  thickly  covered  with 
plants.  When  men  began  to  cultivate  the  soil,  and  to 
decide  just  what  kinds  of  plants  should  grow  in  some 
chosen  place,  they  discovered  weeds.  Weeds  should  cer- 
tainly, however,  be  kept  out  of  our  crops  as  far  as  possible. 
But  we  must  not  think  that  they  were  sent  as  a  curse  to 
man,  for  it  is  better  to  have  the  ground  covered  with 
plants,  though  they  be  weeds,  than  to  have  it  bare. 

Not  Room  for  Both —  Figure  66  shows  a  plant  of  In- 
dian corn  surrounded  by  weeds.  The  roots  of  the  corn 
and  of  the  weeds  are  feeding  from  the  same  soil,  and 
their  stems  are  reaching  up  for  the  same  sunlight.  Surely 
there  will  not  be  enough  water,  food  and  sunlight  for  all, 
and  so  all  will  suffer  unless  some  are  taken  out.  If  we 
hope  to  raise  good  corn,  we  must  destroy  the  weeds. 
We  learned  in  Lesson  1 1  that  keeping  the  surface  of  the 
land  covered  with  a  layer  of  crumbled  soil  tends  to  pre- 
vent evaporation.  Fortunately,  the  same  treatment  tends 
to  prevent  weeds  from  growing.  The  surface  soil  should, 
for  this  twofold  reason,  be  kept  well  cultivated,  especially 
in  warm  weather. 

125 


126 


CROPS    AND    WEEDS 


Annuals. —  Some  weeds  grow  up,  blossom,  ripen  their 
seeds,  and  perish,  all  in  one  season.  These  are  called 
annual  weeds.  Weeds  of  this  class  are  usually  easy  to 
destroy,  for,  if  we  pull  them  up  or  cut  them  off  at  the 
surface  or  a  little  below  it,  they  do  not  often  grow  again. 
Many  of  the  most  common  garden  weeds  belong  to  this 


Fig.  66. —  Corn  choked  by  weeds. 

class.     Annual  weeds  usually  seed  more  freely  than  other 
kinds. 

Biennials. —  Weeds  of  another  class  grow  in  part  one 
season  and  live  through  winter,  to  blossom,  ripen  their 
seed,  and  die,  the  next  season.  These  are  called  biennial 
zveeds.     The  well-known  "bull  thistle,"  so  common  in 


CROPS    AND    WEEDS     .  I27 

old  pastures,  is  of  this  class.  These  weeds  are  sometimes 
rather  difficult  to  destroy  the  first  season  of  their  growth, 
for  they  are  apt  to  grow  up  again  after  being  cut  off. 
If  cut  the  second  season,  just  before  bloom,  they  soon  die 
without  yielding  seed. 

Perennials. —  Weeds  of  a  third  class  continue  to  live 
and  bear  seed  from  year  to  year,  unless  they  are  destroyed. 
These  are  called  perennial  zveeds.  Some  weeds  of  this 
class,  as  the  quack  grass,  sow  thistle,  and  the  wild  morn- 
ing glory,  multiply  from  buds  on  underground  parts  as 
well  as  by  seeds.  Perennial  weeds  are  the  hardest  of  all 
to  destroy.  We  learned  in  Lesson  4  that  the  food  that 
nourishes  the  roots  of  plants  is  formed  in  the  leaves.  If, 
therefore,  we  prevent  the  leaves  from  growing,  the  roots 
will  soon  starve.  This  is  the  surest  way  to  kill  perennial 
weeds,  although  it  is  often  hard  to  carry  out. 

Constant  Warfare. —  Most  weeds  spread  chiefly  from 
their  seeds,  hence  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  weed  seeds.  The  more  thorough  we  are  in 
keeping  the  weeds  out  of  our  land,  the  easier  the  work 
becomes.  While  we  may  not  hope  to  get  rid  of  all  weeds, 
we  may  greatly  lessen  their  numbers  by  keeping  up  con- 
stant warfare  against  them. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  are  weeds? 

2.  How  do  weeds  injure  a  crop? 

3.  Define  annuals,  biennials,  perennials. 

4.  How  do  each  of  these  three  groups  of  weeds  spread? 

5.  How  can  most  weeds  be  kept  from  spreading? 


128  CROPS  AND   WEEDS 

6.  What  kind  of  weeds  is  hardest  to  destroy?     Why? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  the  most  injurious  weeds  in  your 
neighborhood. 

8.  In  what  different  ways  are  weed  seeds  carried  from 
place  to  place? 


26.     MORE  ABOUT  WEEDS. 


The  upper  part  of  a  plant  of  the  Canada  thistle  is  shown 
in  Figure  67,  i,  also  a  portion  of  the  underground  stem 
with  its  rootlets  (2). 
At  3,  is  shown  a 
single  flower,  with  its 
seed  and  downy 
hairs.  The  seed,  also, 
is  shown,  in  4,  nat- 
ural size,  and,  in  5, 
as  it  appears  under 
a  microscope. 

The  root  of  the 
Canada  thistle  is  per- 
ennial. It  sends  out 
underground  stems 
o  r  rootstocks  i  n 
every  direction.  It 
is  because  of  this  fact 
that  it  spreads  so 
rapidly  and  is  so  dif- 
ficult to  get  rid  of. 
These  underground 
stems  develop  buds  at  their  joints,  which  grow  upward, 
forming  new  plants.  Thus  a  single  plant,  if  left  alone 
for  two  or  three  years,  may,  by  means  of  its  rootstocks 

G.  &  M.  Ag.  Q.  X29 


Fig.    67, —  Canada   thistle. 


130  MORE    ABOUT    WEEDS 

alone,  spread  over  a  square  rod  or  more  of  ground.  It 
may  spread,  also,  by  its  seeds,  but  this  is  not  so  likely,  as 
most  of  the  seeds  will  not  germinate. 

The  following  are  the  best  methods  for  the  destruction 
of  the  Canada  thistle : 

(i)  After  manuring  the  soil,  plant  it  thickly  with 
clover.  When  the  thistles  are  in  bloom,  mow  the  clover, 
cutting  down  every  thistle.  When  the  clover  is  again 
up  high  enough  to  cut,  plow  it  under  carefully,  harrow 
and  roll.  Keep  the  field  well  cultivated  till  late  in  the 
fall.     Plant  grain  or  grass  the  next  spring. 

(2)  Pour  oil  of  vitriol  on  the  stump  left  in  the 
ground  after  cutting  off  the  thistle  as  close  as  possible. 

(3)  Apply  salt  liberally  to  each  stump.  Turn  in 
sheep  or  goats.  They  will  usually  eat  the  thistles  close 
to  the  ground,  and  prevent  their  growth. 

(4)  Seed  liberally  with  any  grass  that  will  grow  well 
on  the  ground.  The  thistles  may  be  choked  out  by  this 
method. 

The  Burdock  (called,  also:  Great  lappa,  Gobo,  Lappa 
officinalis,  L.  major,  L.  edulis,  etc.),  Arctium  Lappa. — 
This  coarse,  mammoth,  offensive  weed,  with  its  large 
brown  burs  that  stick  to  the  clothing  and  to  the  coats  of 
animals,  is  familiar  to  all. 

In  Figure  68  is  shown  an  illustration  of  a  portion  of 
the  stems  of  two  varieties  of  this  plant  in  flower.  At  i, 
is  a  branch  of  the  small  variety  (Minor),  and,  at  3,  one 
of  the  more  common  varieties  (Major).  At  2,  a  single 
flower  is  shown  magnified.  A  shows  magnified  views  of 
the  seed,  and  B  shows  the  seed  natural  size. 

Though  not  very  troublesome  in  cultivated  ground, 


MORE   ABOUT    WEEDS 


131 


B^» 


the  burdock  pushes  itself  into  almost  every  waste 
place  where  the  ground  is  rich  and  where  the  neg- 
lect of  the  owner  per- 
mits it  to  exist.  Its 
injury  to  crops  is  far  J^fe^.  i 
less  than  that  of  the. 
Canada  thistle,  but  it 
should  not  be  allowed 
to  grow,  as  it  is  most 
unsightly  and  offensive, 
and  its  clinging  burs, 
besides  being  a  source 
of  annoyance  to  man, 
are"  often  a  damage  to 
domestic  animals. 

Being  a  biennial 
plant,  the  burdock  is 
not  difficult  to  destroy. 
It  dies,  if  left  to  itself, 
at  the  end  of  the  second  F'«-  ^s.—  Burdock, 

season.  The  important  thing  is  to  prevent  its  seeding, 
and  thus  keep  it  from  spreading.  During  the  first  year 
of  growth,  the  plant  is  easily  destroyed  by  being  pulled 
up  by  the  roots  when  the  ground  is  very  wet.  Repeated 
cutting  a  short  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  ground 
may  be  required  the  second  season.  But,  whatever 
method  be  adopted,  the  plant  should  never  be  permitted 
to  bloom. 

The  White   or   Ox-Eye   Daisy    (called,    also:    Daisy,. 
White  weed,  Leucanthemum  vulgare).   Chrysanthemum 
Leucanthemum. —  It  seems  a  pity  that  we  are  compelled 


132 


MORE    ABOUT    WEEDS 


to  condemn  this  beautiful  plant  as  a  harmful  weed,  but 
such  is  the  case.  Where  it  is  allowed  to  grow,  it  often 
fills  pastures  and  meadow  lands  to  so  great  an  extent  as 
to  crowd  out  more  useful  plants,  and  thus  becomes  a 
source  of  damage. 

The  ox-eye  daisy  has  sometimes  been  cultivated  in  the 
flower  garden.  It  is  a  near  relative  to  the  garden  chrys- 
anthemum. It  is  sel- 
dom troublesome,  ex- 
cept in  meadows  or 
pasture  lands,  and 
grows  best  in  rather 
poor  soils.  It  is  a 
perennial  plant,  and 
grows  from  an  un- 
derground stem,  as 
well  as  from  the 
seed. 

It  is  hardly  possi- 
ble to  destroy  the 
ox-eye  daisy  from 
grass  land  in  which 
it  has  secured  a  hold, 
without  breaking  up 
seeds;  4,  see  J,  mag-  thc  sod  and  summcr- 
fallowing  the  ground 
or  devoting  it  for  a  time  to  some  hoed  crop.  Cutting 
the  stems  before  the  flowers  open  will  prevent  the  seed- 
.  ing,  but  does  not  destroy  the  plant  nor  stop  the  spreading 
of  its  rootstocks. 

Snap  Dragon  or  Toadflax   (called,  also:  Butter  and 


Fig.  69. —  Ox-eye  daisy ; 
2,  pistil,  magnified;  3, 
nified. 


agni 
ea,  1 


MORE  ABOUT   WEEDS 


133 


eggs,  Ramsted),  Linaria  vulgaris. — The  snap  dragon  or 
toadflax  was  brought  to  this  country  as  a  garden  flower, 
but  it  is  becoming  quite  dangerous.  It  is  perennial,  and 
is  spread  both  by  its  seeds  and  its  creeping  rootstocks. 
It  tends  to  form  a  large  patch,  and,  so  far  as  it  extends, 
forces  out  all  other  plants. 

A  plant  with  its  head  of  flowers  is  shown  in  Figure  70. 
I  shows  a  single  flow- 
er; 2  shows  an  enlarged 
vertical  section  of  the 
same;  and  3,  a  ma- 
tured seed  pod. 

For  small  areas,  it  is 
possible  to  destroy  the 
snap  dragon  by  grub- 
bing out  the  roots,  but, 
where  the  patches  are 
numerous  and  large, 
the  summer  fallow  is 
the  only  treatment  that 
is  likely  to  be  success- 
ful. Young  plants  may 
be  rooted  out  by  hand 
at  a  time  when  the 
ground  is  very  wet.  ^'''-  ''°-—  ^"^p  'iragon. 

Cocklebur  or  Clotbur,  Xanthium  strnmarium. —  The 
cocklebur  is  a  rapidly  growing,  coarse  weed,  with  an  ir- 
regularly branching  stem,  that  grows  to  the  height  of  from 
one  to  two  feet.  There  are  two  kinds  of  flowers  grown 
in  separate  heads  or  clusters  on  the  same  plant.  The 
staminate  flowers  are  produced  in  roundish  heads  at  the 


134 


MORE   ABOUT    WEEDS 


top   of  the   stem.     The   pistillate   flowers   are   in   clus- 
ters  of   two   or   three   at   the   base   of  the   male   stalk. 

These  enlarge  and 
form  thick,  hard,  ob- 
long burs,  beset  with 
stiff  hooked  prickles, 
and  bearing  two  strong 
beaks  at  the  upper  end. 
These  burs,  like  those 
of  the  burdock,  stick  to 
clothing  and  to  the 
coats  of  animals.  The 
upper  portion  of  a  plant 
of  cocklebur  is  shown 
Fig.  71  — Cocklebur.  ^  in  Figure  71.  At  the 
top  of  the  stem,  the  heads  of  staminate  flowers  are  seen, 
and,  at  the  base  of  the  leaves,  heads  of  the  pistillate  flow- 
ers. At  the  right,  near  the  top  of  the  figure,  is  a  staminate 
flower  enlarged.  A* shows  a  bur,  and  B,  a  section  of  the 
same,  showing  the  two  embryos.  Both  A  and  B  are 
about  natural  size.  Each  bur,  when  ripe,  incloses  two 
seeds,  one  of  which  may  germinate  the  first  year,  and  the 
other  lie  dormant  until  a  later  time. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  plant  is  poisonous  to  cattle, 
but  this  is  probably  a  mistake. 

The  cocklebur  is  common  in  barnyards,  along  roadsides, 
in  waste  places,  and  cultivated  grounds. 

As  the  root  of  the  cocklebur  is  not  creeping,  and  does 
not  live  in  the  ground  through  winter,  clean  culture  with 
some  hoed  crop,  or  seeding  to  clover  or  meadow  grass, 
with   frequent  mowing,  will  keep  it  under  control.     It 


MORE   ABOUT    WEEDS 


135 


should  be  carefully  prevented  from  seeding,  not  only  in 
cultivated  grounds,  but  in  waste  places  as  well,  and  this 
is  the  only  means  by  which  it  may  be  prevented  from 
becoming  troublesome.  It  is  often  necessary  to  go 
through  corn  and  stubble  fields  in  August  or  September 
for  this  purpose. 

The  Sow  Thistle  (called,  also:  Field  sow  thistle,  Per- 
ennial sow  thistle),  Sonchiis  arvensis. —  This  plant  is  al- 
most as  bad  as  the 
Canada  thistle. 
Indeed,  some 
farmers  who  have 
contended  with 
both  of  these  ene- 
mies have  pro- 
nounced the  sow 
thistle  the  more 
unmanageable  of 
the  two. 

The  plant  of  the 
sow  thistle  is  soft- 
er and  less  rigid 
than  that  of  either 
the  Canada  thistle 
or  the  bull  thistle. 
The  leaves  are 
thinner  and 
smoother,  and, 
while  having 
prickles  on  their  borders,  are  so  soft  and  flabby  that  they 
may  be  easily  handled.     The  stem,  which  is  free  from 


Fig.   72. —  Sow   thistle   in   bloom. 


136  MORE   ABOUT    WEEDS 

prickles,  grows  from  one  foot  to  two  feet  in  height,  is 
hollow,  and  gives  out  a  milky  juice  when  cut.  The  flow- 
ers, which  are  produced  in  large  heads  at  the  top  of  the 
stem,  are  bright  yellow.  The  plant  is  perennial,  and,  like 
the  Canada  thistle,  grows  from  underground  buds,  as 
well  as  by  seed.  In  Figure  72,  is  shown  a  specimen  of 
the  perennial  sow  thistle.  Young  plants  of  the  sow 
thistle,  as  they  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  in 
spring  or  autumn,  are  illustrated  in  Figure  73. 


Fig.  73. —  Young  sow  thistles. 

Sour  Dock  (called,  also:  Yellow  dock.  Curled  dock, 
Narrow  dock,  Curled  rumex),  Rvimcx  crisptis. —  Like 
the  burdock,  this  plant  is  a  coarse  and  homely  intruder 
into  waste  lands.  Its  roots  are  believed  by  some  to  be 
valuable  for  use  in  medicine  and  its  young  leaves  make 
excellent  greens;  but  the  ground  it  occupies  is  far  prefer- 
able to  its  company,  and  it  should  be  persistently  hunted 
out  and  destroyed. 

The  sour  dock  is  a  rank,  coarse,  deep-rooting  perennial 
weed.     The  rather  slender  branching  stem  grows  to  three 


MORE   ABOUT    WEEDS 


137 


or  four  feet  in  height,  and  ends  in  a  long,  somewhat 
plumehke,  compound  flower  stalk  of  greenish  leaves. 
These  are  followed  by  numerous  angular  brown 
seeds,  shaped  some- 
what like  kernels  of 
buckwheat.  The 
rather  long  and  nar- 
row, sharp-pointed 
leaves  have  distinct 
vein  markings,  and 
are  strongly  wavy- 
curled  on  the  bor- 
ders. They  are  borne 
on  rather  long  leaf 
stalks,  and,  where 
each  one  of  these 
clasps  the  stem,  a 
branch  starts  out. 
The  plant  has  a  long, 
spindle-shaped,  yel- 
low taproot.  A  spec- 
imen is  shown  in 
Figure  74. 

Perhaps  the  best 
method  of  destroy- 
ing the  yellow  dock 
is  to  root  it  out  by  hand  at  times  when  the  soil  is  very 
wet.  By  clasping  the  stem  just  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  giving  it  a  slight  twist  and  a  strong  quick 
pull  at  the  same  time,  the  root  will  usually  come  out  al- 
most entire.     The  more  common  method  of  cutting  ofif 


Fig.   74. —  Yellow  dock;  o,  seed,  magnified. 


138 


MORE    ABOUT    WEEDS 


the  stem  with  the  scythe  or  hoe  does  not  destroy  the  root. 
Wild  Mustard  (called,  also:     Charlock,  English  char- 
lock, Kerlock,  Kellock,  Sinapis  arvensis),  Brassica  Sm- 

apistrum. —  The  wild 
mustard  is  a  coarse, 
rough,  annual  plant, 
much  like  the  garden 
radish,  except  that  it 
has  a  more  irregular 
and  branching  root. 
The  stem  and  branches 
end  in  clusters  of  yel- 
low flowers,  of  which 
the  lower  ones  are  first 
to  open.  The  stem  con- 
t  i  n  u  e  s  to  lengthen, 
forming  a  long,  leafless 
flower  stalk,  with 
knotted     buds     toward 

Fig.  75.— The   wild   mustard.     An  individ-  the    baSC,    OpCU    floWCrS 
ual   flower  and  a  seed-pod  appear  at  the  . 

left,    and   at   the    lower   left-hand    corner  tOWard  the  SUmmit,  and 
is   shown  a  flower. 

a  cluster  of  unopened 
flowers  at  the  top.  The  seeds  resemble  those  of  the  cab- 
bage, and  have  a  harsh,  biting  taste.  A  portion  of  a 
plant  of  the  wild  mustard  is  shown  in  Figure  75. 

The  best  way  to  get  rid  of  the  wild  mustard  is  to  go 
through  grain  fields  and  other  places  where  it  grows,  and 
pull  out  the  plants  while  they  are  in  bloom,  and  hence 
easily  seen.  Not  one  should  be  permitted  to  remain. 
The  labor  this  makes  necessary  is  not  so  great  as  one  who 
has  not  tried  it  might  think.     No  grain  should  be  sown 


MORE  ABOUT  WEEDS 


139 


which  contains  the  seeds  of  wild  mustard,  when  this  can 
be  helped. 

The  Wild  Parsnip,  Pastinaca  sativa. — The  wild  pars- 
nip is  the  wild  form  of  the  common  garden  parsnip,  and  is 
hence  readily  known.  The  illustra- 
tion, Figure  76,  is  from  a  plant  taken 
from  a  meadow,  and  of  which  the 
root  leaves  had  perished. 

The  plant  is  biennial,  forming  its 
root  leaves  the  j5rst  season  and  its 
flower  stalk  the  second.  Perhaps  the 
best  method  of  destroying  the  young 
plants  is  by  pulling  them  out  at  a  time 
when  the  soil  is  filled  with  water  and 
the  roots  may  be  drawn  out  nearly 
entire.  Cutting  off  the  young  plants 
with  the  hoe  tends  rather  to  increase 
than  to  kill  them.  Cutting  the  flower 
stalks  of  the  second  year  plants  be- 
fore the  seeds  are  old  enough  to 
become  ripe  will  prevent  spreading 
by  the  seeds,  and,  as  the  parent  plant 
has  run  its  course,  it  will  soon  perish. 

The  Russian  Thistle  (called,  also: 
Russian  cactus,  Saltwort,  Tartar 
weed.  Hector  weed),  Salsola  kali, 
variety  tragus.— Th.e.  Russian  thistle 
is  an  annual  plant,  coming  each 
year  from  the  seed.  It  grows  from  a  single,  small, 
light-colored  root  less  than  half  an  inch  through  and 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  length,   to   the  height  of 


Fig.  76. —  Wild  parsnip. 


I40  MORE   ABOUT    WEEDS 

from  six  inches  to  three  feet,  branching  profusely,  and, 
when  not  crowded,  often  forms  a  dense,  brushhke  plant 
from  two  to  six  feet  in  width,  and  from  one  half  to  two 
thirds  as  high.  When  young,  it  is  a  very  harmless  look- 
ing plant,  tender  and  juicy  throughout,  with  small,  nar- 
row, downy,  green  leaves.  When  the  dry  weather  comes 
in  August,  the  tender,  downy  leaves  wither  and  fall, 
and  the  plant  increases  rapidly  in  size,  sending  out  hard. 


Fig.  77. —  Russian   thistle.     The  above  plant  was   fully  three  feet  in  diameter. 

stiff  branches.  Instead  of  leaves,  these  branches  bear 
at  intervals  of  half  an  inch  or  less,  three  sharp  spines, 
which  harden,  but  do  not  grow  dull,  as  the  plant  increases 
in  size  and  ugliness.  The  spines  are  from  a  quarter  to 
a  half  inch  in  length.  At  the  base  of  each  cluster  of 
spines,  is  a  papery  flower  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in 
width.  If  this  be  taken  out  and  carefully  pulled  to  pieces, 
a  small,  pulpy,  green  body,  coiled  up  and  appearing  like  a 
tiny  green  snail  shell,  will  be  found.  This  is  the  seed. 
As  the  seed  ripens,  it  becomes  hard  and  of  a  rather  dull- 
gray  color.     At  the  earliest  frost,  the  plants  change  in 


MORE   ABOUT    WEEDS 


141 


color  from  dark  green  to  crimson,  especially  on  the  most 
exposed  parts.  When  the  ground  becomes  frozen  and  the 
November  winds  blow  across  the  prairie,  the  small  root  is 
broken  or  loosened  and  pulled  out.  The  dense,  yet  light, 
growth,  and  the  circu- 
lar or  hemispherical 
form  of  the  plant,  fit  it 
most  perfectly  to  be 
carried  by  the  wind.  It 
goes  rolling  across  the 
country  at  racing  speed, 
scattering  seeds  at  ev- 
ery bound. 

The  best  method  of 
destroying  Russian 
thistles  is  by  plowing  in 
August  or  September, 
before  they  have  grown 
large  and  stiff,  and  be- 
fore they  have  gone  to 
seed,  using  care  that  all 
seeds  are  well  turned 
under.  If  the  season 
be  long  and  weeds  come 
through  the  furrow,  it 
may  be  necessary  to 
harrow  the  land  before 
winter.  Burn  over  the 
stubble  fields  as  soon  as  possible  after  harvest.  Cut  the 
stubble  with  the  mowing  machine  if  the  fire  does  not 

Cutting  the  stubble  and  thistles 


Fig.  78. —  Branch  from  Russian  thistle, 
showing  appearance  of  plant  when  seeds 
are  mature;  a,  from  a  young  plant,  show- 
ing the  appearance  before  the  dry  season; 
b,   mature   seed. 


burn  everything  clean. 


142 


MORE    ABOUT    WEEDS 


before  the  latter  have  gone  to  seed  will  help,  but  burning 
is  essential  to  complete  success,  as,  otherwise,  the  thistles 
will  send  out  seed-bearing  branches  below  the  places 
where  the  mowing  machine  cuts  them. 

Corn,  potatoes, 

beets,  or  any  other  cul- 

-Jf  ^r    ^"^^  ^mj^  tivated  crop,  well  ta- 

•i        ^H^  >m.^  ken  care   of,   will,   in 

two  years,  rid  the  land, 
not  only  of  Russian 
thistles,  but,  also,  of 
nearly  all  other  weeds. 
Sheep  are  very  fond 
of  the  Russian  thistle 
until  it  becomes  too 
coarse  and  woody. 
The  young  plants 
may,  therefore,  be 
kept  down  by  pastur- 
ing sheep  on  them, 
and  the  only  valuable 
quality  these  trouble- 

FiG,    79.— Branch   of   Russian   thistle,  showing  SOmC  plaUtS   havC  may 

appearance   before   flowering   and   before   the  .         .   .^  ,  .. 

spiny,  branchlets    have   elongated;   a,    spines;  HI  tlllS  maimer   DC  Utu- 

b,  young  grain   with   the  covering   removed;  . 

c.  blossom     removed     from     the     axil     and    IZCd. 
viewed    from    below;    d.    section    of    fruiting 

calyx,  side  view;  c,  same,  seen  from  above.  Jf       thc       RuSSiail 

thistle  is  to  be  kept  out  of  the  cultivated  fields,  it 
must  be  got  rid  of  along  roadsides,  railroad  grades, 
waste  land  where  the  sod  has  been  broken,  and,  in  fact, 
in  all  places  where  it  may,  by  chance,  have  obtained  a 
foothold. 


MORE    ABOUT    WEEDS 


143 


Quack  Grass  (called,  also:  Couch  grass,  Quitch  grass, 
Quick  grass.  Wheat  grass,  Dog  grass.  Tommy  grass, 
Triticum  r  e  p  e  n  s), 
Agropyriim  repens. 
—  Quack  grass  has 
some  excellent  quali- 
ties as  a  fodder  plant. 
It  is  said  to  surpass 
timothy  in  nutritive 
•  value,  but,  when  it 
takes  possession  of 
the  soil,  nothing  else 
can  be  grown.  It 
puts  out  strong  un- 
derground stems, 
which  root  and  send 
up  new  stems  at  their 
joints.  These  under- 
ground stems  often 
show  their  power  by 
growing  through  po- 
tatoes or  bits  of 
wood  that  chance  to 
lie  in  their  path. 
They  form  a  stiff  sod 
that  often  severely 
tries  the  muscles  of 
the  plowman's  team.  Branches  do  not  usually  come  from 
every  joint,  but  if  the  stems  are  broken  or  cut  in  pieces, 
as  with  a  plow,  hoe  or  harrow,  each  piece  sends  up  a  stem 
and  leaves  from  any  joint  it  may  have,  and  becomes  a 


Fig.  80. —  Quack  grass. 


144  MORE    ABOUT    WEEDS 

distinct  plant.  A  large  amount  of  nourishment  is  stored 
up  in  the  underground  stems,  which  makes  them  very 
nutritive  and  furnishes  food  for  growth.  The  new  plants 
formed  by  cutting  up  the  old  ones  grow  with  great  vigor, 
and  so  form  many  weeds  in  the  place  of  one.  The  under- 
ground portions  are  eaten  by  stock  when  they  can  get  at 
them.  Horses  and  cows  are  fond  of  them;  hogs  root 
industriously  for  them  and  help  to  destroy  them. 

The  illustration  of  quack  grass  shown  in  Figure  80 
makes  further  description  unnecessary. 

The  summer  fallow  is  probably  the  most  satisfactory 
method  of  destroying  quack  grass  on  any  large  scale. 
Turn  the  sod  under  in  spring  and  plow  again  as  often  as 
any  amount  of  grass  appears  above  ground,  until  Septem- 
ber, when  rye  or  wheat  may  be  sown  if  desired.  It  is 
best  to  remove  fences  or  other  obstructions  to  the  plow, 
that  make  a  harboring  place  for  the  underground 
stems. 

Small  patches  may  be  destroyed  by  covering  the  ground 
deeply  with  straw  or  other  litter,  or  by  devoting  the 
ground  to  some  crop  that  requires  clean  culture,  as  cab- 
bage, cauliflower  or  celery,  provided  the  required  clean 
culture  be  faithfully  given.  Patches  of  quack  grass 
should  never  be  cross  plowed  or  cross  cultivated  in  tilling 
the  field  that  contains  them,  as  this  is  one  of  the  surest 
means  of  spreading  the  underground  stems  to  new  loca- 
tions. 

The  Wild  Carrot,  Daitciis  carota. —  The  wild  carrot  is 
one  of  the  most  troublesome  weeds  in  the  eastern  states, 
and  is  rapidly  spreading  westward.  It  thrives  in  nearly 
all  soils  and  is  spread  rapidly  by  its  many  seeds.     It  re- 


MORE    ABOUT    WEEDS 


145 


sembles  the  garden  carrot  so   closely   that   it   is  easily 
known. 

Figure  8i   shows  the  wild  carrot  plant  with  the  seed 
magnified    at    c,    and 
natural  size  at  d. 

Mowing  the  plants 
as  often  as  the  flower- 
stalks  appear  will  de- 
stroy them,  and  will 
also  prevent  their  seed- 
ing. The  first  mow- 
ing often  seems  to  in- 
crease the  number  of 
plants,  but,  as  the  root 
is  biennial,  it  can  not 
live  long.  Pulling  the 
plants  by  hand,  while 
the  ground  is  wet,  is 
one  of  the  surest 
methods  of  destruc- 
tion. Sheep  aid  in 
keeping  them  in  sub- 
jection. The  plant 
can  not  endure 
thorough  cultivation 
and  hence  is  rarely  very  troublesome  in  well  tilled  land. 

Bindweed  (called  also:  Morning  glory  (incorrectly), 
Field  bindweed,)  Convolvulus  arvensis. — This  is  a  twin- 
ing or  creeping  plant  with  a  perennial  root  and  an  annual 
stem. 

The    white,    or    reddish-tinted    funnel-shaped    flowers 

G  &  M.  Ag.  lo. 


Fig.  8i. —  Wild  carrot;  a,  plant  in  bloom; 
b,  leaf;  c,  seed,  magnified;  d,  seed  nat- 
ural size. 


146 


MORE   ABOUT   WEEDS 


are  about  an  inch  long  and  open  mostly  in  the  morning, 
like  those  of  the  morning  glory,  with  which  this  plant 

is  often  confused.  The 
plant  is  a  rapid  grower 
and  spreads  chiefly  by 
means  of  its  fleshy  un- 
derground stems  like 
the  quack  grass.  The 
wonderful  power  of 
the  plant  to  increase  is 
shown  by  Figure  82. 
This  illustration  clear- 
ly shows  that  the  un- 
derground stems  put 
forth  strong  buds 
from  which  shoots 
grow  upward  to  the 
surface,  and  that  some 
of  the  main  under- 
ground stems  extend 
horizontally  several 
inches  below  the  plow  line,  which  fact  easily  explains  the 
failure  of  the  plow  to  destroy  this  plant. 

The  bindweed  is  a  most  troublesome  weed  where  it  once 
gets  a  start.  It  does  not  spread  rapidly  when  left  to 
itself,  but  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  destroy,  and  small 
patches  of  it  in  cultivated  ground  are  liable  to  be  widely 
scattered  by  the  cultivating  tools.  Perhaps  the  best  treat- 
ment for  small  patches  is  to  cover  the  ground  a  foot  or 
more  deep  with  straw,  marsh  hay  or  other  litter,  leaving 
it  on  until  it  decays. 


Fig.  82. — Bindweed,  showing  underground 
stems  at  A.  A.    (Reduced.) 


MORE  ABOUT   WEEDS 


147 


Prickly  Lettuce  (called,  also:  Wild  lettuce,  Milk  this- 
tle, English  thistle,  Compass  plant),  Lactuca  Scariola. — 
This  plant  is  occupying 
waste  grounds  in  many 
parts  of  the  country.  It 
is  an  annual,  and  in- 
creases only  by  seed,  but 
it  seeds  very  freely  and 
the  young  plants  are 
so  strong  that  it  spreads 
very  rapidly  where  per- 
mitted to  do  so.  It  has 
often  been  mistaken  for 
the  sow  thistle  and  some- 
times for  the  Russian 
thistle. 

The  prickly  lettuce  is 
closely  related  to  the 
common  garden  lettuce, 
which  it  resembles  in  the 
seed-bearing  stage.  The 
stem  is  smooth,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  scat- 
tered prickles.  The 
plant  begins  to  bloom  in  July,  and  produces  a  few  blos- 
soms each  morning  after  that  time  until  killed  by  frost. 
An  average  plant  has  been  estimated  to  bear  more  than 
8,000  seeds. 

Repeatedly  mowing  the  plants  as  they  come  into  bloom, 
or  earlier,  will  subdue  them.  Thorough  cultivation  with 
a  hoed  crop,  by  means  of  which  the  seed  in  the  soil  may 


Fig.    83. — Prickly     lettuce;    a,    plant    in 
bloom;  b,  leaf;  c,  seed,  magnified. 


148 


MORE   ABOUT   WEEDS 


be  made  to  germinate,  will  be  found  very  successful.  The 
first  plowing  should  be  shallow,  so  as  not  to  bury  the  seeds 
too  deep.  The  mature  seed-bearing  plants  should  never 
be  plowed  under,  as  that  would  plant  the  seeds  at  differ- 
ent depths.  Mature  plants  should  be  mowed  and  burned 
before  plowing.  The  seed  appears  in  clover,  millet,  and 
the  heavier  grass  seeds,  and  the  plant  is  very  often  started 
by  this  means.  As  the  seed  may  be  carried  a  long  dis- 
tance by  the  wind,  the  plants  must  be  cleared  out  of  fence- 
rows,  waste  land,  and  roadsides. 

Long  Leaved  Plantain  (called,  also:  Rib  grass,  Ripple 
grass,    English    plantain,    Buckhorn    plantain),    Plantago 

lanceolata. — This  plant 
is  much  like  the  com- 
mon plantain,  from 
which  it  differs  in  its 
much  longer  and  nar- 
rower slightly  hairy 
leaves,  and  its  shorter 
and  thicker  seed  spikes. 
It  is  perennial,  and  is 
apt  to  be  very  abundant 
in  upland  meadows, 
clover  fields,  and  poor- 
ly kept  lawns.  It  is 
especially  to  be  dreaded  in  red-clover  fields,  intended  to  be 
cut  for  seed,  since  the  seeds  mature  with  those  of  the 
clover  and  are  of  so  nearly  the  same  size  and  weight  with 
them  that  the  two  can  not  be  easily  separated. 

The  plants  can  be  destroyed  by  cutting  their  roots  off 
several  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  pulling 


Fig.  84. — Long  leaved  plantain. 


MORE   ABOUT    WEEDS  I49 

out  the  parts  cut  ofif.  They  can  not  bear  good  cultivation 
and  on  rich  soils  they  can  probably  be  smothered  out  by 
a  close  June  sod. 

NOTE. 

A  large  number  of  very  common  weeds  have  been  omitted. 
Only  those  giving  special  difficulty  to  the  farmer  have  been 
described.  Pupils  should  make  a  study  of  all  the  weeds  to  be 
found  in  the  neighborhood.  Send  to  the  Experiment  Station  in 
your  state  for  a  bulletin  on  the  subject  of  weeds  and  how  to 
destroy  them,  or  send  to  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  for  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  28. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Why  is  it  so  hard  to  get  rid  of  Canada  thistles? 

2.  How  do  burdocks  spread? 

3.  What  weeds  named  in  this  chapter  have  underground 
stems,  or  rootstocks? 

4.  Why  is  the  long-leaved  plantain  so  objectionable  in  a 
red-clover  field  that  is  to  be  cut  for  seed? 

5.  Dig  up  and  examine  the  roots  of  several  common 
weeds  in  your  home  locality. 


27.    THE  GARDEN. 

Suggestions  for  Work —  Every  boy  and  girl  living  on 
a  farm  should  have  a  garden.  A  great  deal  of  pleasure, 
as  well  as  some  profit,  may  be  obtained  from  planning 
and  caring  for  a  garden. 

In  the  early  spring,  have  a  small  plat  of  land  set  aside 
as  your  garden,  to  do  with  as  you  please.     Send  for 


Fig.  85. — "  See  that  the  weeds  are  kept  out." 

seed  catalogues,  and  study  out  just  what  will  be  best 
to  plant  in  the  garden.  When  you  have  done  this,  pre- 
pare the  ground  well  for  the  seed,  and,  after  the  plants 

150 


THE    GARDEN 


151 


have  come  up,  watch  their  growth  from  day  to  day. 
See  that  the  weeds  are  kept  out  and  that  the  plants  are 
cultivated  as  they  need  it.  Make  a  success  of  your  small 
farm  by  attention  to  it.  It  may  be  that  you  can  sell 
something  from  your  garden,  and  thus  make  some  money 
for  yourself.  In  any  event,  you  will  have  the  pleasure 
of  doing  something  useful.    . 

THE  STRAWBERRY  (PI.  I.). 
The  Strawberry  is  a  good  fruit  for  boys  and  girls  to 
cultivate.     The  plants  are  easily  taken  care  of,  and  may 
bear  a  full  crop  of  fruit  the  next  season  after  planting. 


Fig.   86. —  Strawberry  blossoms. 

The  plants  multiply  during  summer  from  trailing  run- 
ners. One  plant  set  out  in  spring  will  often  form  thirty 
or  forty  young  plants  by  autumn.  These  will  nearly  all 
bear  fruit  the  following  summer. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  strawberries,  and  not  all 
succeed  equally  well  in  every  garden.  Before  deciding 
what  variety  to  plant,  inquiry  should  be  made  of  neigh- 
bors to  find  what  variety  succeeds  best  in  the  vicinity. 

Perfect  and  Imperfect  Flowers. —  There  is  a  lesson  to 
be   learned  about  the  flowers  of  the  strawberry.     The 


152 


THE   GARDEN 


flowers  of  some  varieties  are  not  perfect,  and  will  not  bear 
fruit  unless  a  variety  having  perfect  flowers  is  planted 
in  the  same  plat  with  them.  Figure  86,  b,  shows  an 
imperfect  strawberry  flower,  and  Figure  86,  a,  a  perfect 
one.  Figure  86,  c,  has  a  few  stamens,  but  is  not  well 
supplied.  The  little  organs  marked  S  (Fig.  53,  A)  are 
the  stamens,  which  give  out  the  pollen.  Some  of  this 
pollen  must  come  upon  the  pistils,  P,  or  a  fruit  will  not 
be  produced.  (Lessons  21  and  22.)  If  plants  of  a  per- 
fect-flowered variety  are  growing  within  five  or  six  feet  of 
those  of  an  imperfect-flowered  sort,  the  bees  will  carry 
the  pollen  to  the  latter  plants,  and  they  will  bear  fruit  as 
well  as  if  they  had  pollen  of  their  own.  Some  of  the 
most  beautiful  varieties  of  strawberries  have  imperfect 
flowers. 

Care  and  Planting —  The  best  strawberries  commonly 
grow  on  plants  that  were  formed  the  season  before,  hence 
only  these  should  be  set.  The  plants  are  generally  set 
out  in  the  spring,  about  two  feet  apart,  in  rows  three 
and  one-half  or  four  feet  apart.  A  plat  of  plants  cov- 
ering five  or  six  square  rods  should  furnish  strawberries 
enough  for  an  average  family.  The  soil  should  be  fer- 
tile and  free  from  perennial  weeds.  By  autumn,  the 
plants  should  have  multiplied  to  such  an  extent  that  each 
row  forms  a  bed  of  plants  about  two  feet  wide.  Of 
course,  all  weeds  should  be  kept  out  of  this  bed.  The 
cultivator  should  be  freely  used  between  the  rows  to 
keep  the  soil  well  crumbled  and  to  keep  the  plants  in  the 
different  rows  apart.  In  climates  where  the  ground 
freezes  much  in  winter,  it  is  best  to  cover  the  strawberry 
bed  an  inch  deep  with  clean  straw  or  leaves  just  before 


THE    GARDEN  153 

freezing  weather.  This  keeps  the  ground  from  freezing 
and  thawing  often  during  the  winter,  and  so  tends  to 
protect  the  roots  from  damage.  In  spring,  the  covering 
should  be  raked  off  and  the  ground  between  the  rows 
well  cultivated.  Just  before  the  fruit  ripens,  the  ground 
between  the  rows  should  be  mulched  with  straw  or  grass, 
to  keep  the  fruit  from  being  spattered  with  dirt  by  the 
rain. 

After  the  strawberry  harvest  is  past,  if  the  bed  is  to 
be  kept  for  another  crop,  it  is  well  to  mow  off  the  plants 
close  to  the  ground  with  a  scythe  or  mowing  machine. 
The  cut-off  material  may  then  be  dried  in  the  sun,  and, 
with  the  mulching  that  remains  between  the  rows,  raked 
from  the  bed  and  burned.  This  will  destroy  some  harm- 
ful insects  and  diseases.  The  wide  rows  may  then  be 
narrowed  down  to  about  six  inches  in  width.  This  may 
be  done  by  cutting  all  the  plants  off  just  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  with  a  sharp  spade,  except  in  a  strip 
six  inches  wide  through  the  center  of  the  row.  The 
ground  between  the  rows  should  then  be  enriched  by 
spreading  decayed  manure  over  it,  and  should  be  well 
cultivated.  If  the  weather  be  dry,  the  plat  should,  if 
possible,  be  well  watered.  New  plants  will  then  be 
formed  on  both  sides  of  this  narrow  row,  and,  by  fall, 
the  rows  will  be  as  wide  as  they  were  in  the  spring,  and 
most  of  the  plants  will  be  young. 

Some  gardeners  plow  up  the  strawberry  bed  after  the 
first  crop  of  berries  has  been  picked.  Others  treat  it  as 
above  directed,  and  pick  a  second  crop  the  following  year. 
Still  others  keep  the  bed  until  the  third  crop  has  been 
picked.     If  the  bed  is  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  is  well 


154 


THE    GARDEN 


manured  each  year,  the  third  crop  may  be  as  large  as  the 
first. 

THE  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY. 

Planting  and   Care. —  The   raspberry  and  blackberry 
are  delicious  fruits.     The  bushes  generally  bear  prickles, 

and  the  stems  die  down  to  the 

*VA  ^v'*/ .  .-:^i^_     ^^g^  g^^j^   yg^j.  ^f|-gj.   fruiting. 

They  are  hardy  except  where 
winters  are  very  cold.  They 
multiply  by  suckers  that  grow 
from  the  roots,  or  by  the  ends 
of  the  branches  taking  root  in 
the  ground.  The  young  plants 
are  usually  set  about  four  feet 
apart  in  rows  seven  or  eight 
Fig.  87.—  Eldorado  blackberry,    fg^^    apart.       They    begin    to 

bear  fruit  the  second  year  after  planting.  The  ground 
between  the  plants  should  be  cultivated  or  mulched.  The 
dead  sterns  that  have  borne  fruit  should  be  cut  off  and 
taken  out  in  the  fall  or  early  spring,  and  the  young 
shoots  that  grow  from  the  base  in  spring  will  need  thin- 
ning out  after  the  second  year.  Only  four  or  five  for 
each  plant  should  be  allowed  to  grow.  Where  winters 
are  very  cold,  the  stems  should  be  bent  down  and  cov- 
ered with  earth  late  in  autumn.  To  avoid  breaking  the 
stems,  a  little  earth  is  removed  from  near  their  base,  so 
that  the  strain  of  bending  comes  mostly  on  the  roots. 

The  raspberry  and  blackberry  are  not  much  troubled 
by  insects. 


THE    GARDEN  I55 

Marketing. —  The  strawberry,  raspberry  and  black- 
berry are  largely  grown  for  market  in  some  localities. 
They  generally  prove  profitable  where  the  business  is  well 
managed.  To  be  most  successful,  they  should  be  .grown 
in  a  location  where  labor  and  manure  may  be  had  cheap, 
and  where  these  fruits  may  be  sent  to  market  without 
having  to  be  carried  far  by  wagon.  They  are  commonly 
sold  in  quart  or  pint  boxes,  which  are  packed  in  cases  or 
crates.  The  picked  berries  should  be  removed  promptly 
to  a  cool,  shady  place,  and  should  always  be  handled  with 
care  to  avoid  bruising  them.  The  yield  of  berries  per 
acre  is  usually  larger  than  that  of  grain. 

The  raspberry,  in  some  places,  is  dried  in  large  quan- 
tities, and  the  dried  fruit  brings  a  good  market  price. 

THE  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY  (PI.  I.). 

Planting  and  Care. —  The  currant  and  gooseberry  are 
less  popular  fruits  than  the  strawberry,  but  they  are 
easily  grown,  and  at  least  a  few  bushes  should  be  found 
in  every  garden.  The  bushes  may  be  planted  from  four 
to  six  feet  apart  each  way.  They  are  very  hardy  and 
fruitful.  They  are  multiplied  by  planting  cuttings  of  the 
stem  in  moist  soil,  or  by  covering  the  stems  with  earth. 
As  the  bushes  become  old,  the  oldest  stems  may  be  cut 
off. 

A  troublesome  insect,  called  the  currant  worm,  gener- 
ally appears  on  the  leaves  rather  early  in  spring.  If  this 
is  not  destroyed,  it  will  consume  most  of  the  leaves  and 
the  fruit  will  not  grow  well.  It  appears  first  on  the  lower 
and  more  central  leaves  of  the  bushes.  To  destroy  the 
currant  worm,  sprinkle  the  leaves  with  water  that  has 


156  THE  GARDEN 

powder  of  white  hellebore  stirred  in  it.  This  powder 
may  be  bought  at  drug  stores.  A  tablespoon ful  should 
be  well  stirred  into  about  three  gallons  of  water.  The 
mixture  may  be  put  on  the  bushes  with  a  sprinkling  pot. 
Currants  are  mostly  used  for  making  jelly,  for  which 
they  are  much  prized.  There  are  red,  white  and  black 
varieties.  Gooseberries  are  used  when  green  for  sauce 
and  for  canning.  Only  the  native  American  varieties 
are  satisfactory  in  the  United  States. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Ask  your  father  to  give  you  a  small  plot  of  ground 
for  a  garden.  In  it,  grow  several  kinds  of  vegetables  and 
at  least  one  kind  of  fruit.  Keep  a  record  of  all  work  done 
in  your  garden  and  of  the  crops  you  produce. 

2.  What  kind  of  soil  should  be  selected  for  a  garden? 

3.  Why  should  strawberry  plants  be  covered  with  straw 
or  leaves  in  the  winter? 

4.  How  do  raspberry  and  blackberry  plants  multiply? 


28,   THE   ORCHARD. 

Every  farmer  should  have  an  orchard.  Fruit  trees  of 
some  kinds  will  grow  wherever  farm  crops  will  grow. 
Good  fruit  not  only  is  pleasing  to  the  taste,  but  is  very 
healthful  as  food. 

Orchard  trees  are  grown  by  planting  the  seeds  or  the 
pits  of  fruit.  They  need  to  be  grafted  or  budded  to 
make  them  bear  fruit  of  a  particular  variety. 

Planting. —  Fruit  trees  rarely  grow  and  bear  fruit  well 
unless  they  receive  good  care.  They  should  be  planted 
far  enough  apart  so  that  the  tops  will  not  shade  each 
other,  and  so  that  the  roots  will  have  sufficient  room  to 
procure  the  water  they  need.  They  should  be  pruned 
sufficiently  so  that  the  branches  will  not  rub  against  each 
other  much,  and  so  that  the  sun  can  shine  in  upon  the 
growing  fruit.  The  ground  should  be  manured  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  trees  may  have  all  the  fertility  they  need  for 
continuous  fruit  bearing.  The  soil  should  be  cultivated 
during  the  first  half  of  the  season  while  the  trees  are 
growing.  About  midsummer,  it  is  well  to  sow  some 
quick-growing  crop,  as  oats,  peas,  clover,  or  vetches,  to 
furnish  a  cover  for  the  ground  during  winter.  This 
tends  to  prevent  washing,  deep  freezing  and  thawing  of 
the  ground,  and  to  save  fertility. 

Insect  Pests —  Orchard  trees  need  more  or  less  pro- 
tection against  harmful  insects  and  fungi.     There  are 

157 


158 


THE   ORCHARD 


various  ways  of  giving  this  protection,  and  some  special 
knowledge  is  needed  for  each  kind  of  fruit.  Much  of 
this  protection  is  given  by  spray- 
ing the  trees.  This  means  spraying 
them  with  water  containing  some 
substance  that  destroys  the  harmful 
insects  or  fungi  without  injuring 
the  fruit.  This  is  done  with  a  force 
pump  and  hose.  The  hose  is  fitted 
with  a  nozzle  that  divides  the  stream 
into  very  fine  spray. 

Other  means  of  protection  are 
necessary  in  some  cases.  Borers 
often  injure  the  trunks  of  trees. 
These  must  be  destroyed  or  kept 
out  by  special  treatments.  Insects  are  sometimes  en- 
trapped by  placing  bands  about  the  trunks  of  the  trees. 
Fruits  containing  insects 
are  often  destroyed  or 
are  fed  to  stock,  to  keep 
the  insects  from  multi- 
plying. 

The  successful  fruit 
grower  will  need  to 
study  much,  and  to 
watch  carefully  to  guard 
against  insects  and  dis- 
ease. 

THE  APPLE. 


Fig.  88.—  The  Flat- 
headed  borer;  a.  the 
larva;  h.  the  pupa;  d, 
the  perfect  beetle. 


Fig.  89. —  A  wormy  apple,  showing  the  fa- 
miliar mass  ol  brown  particles  tiirown  out 
at  the  blossom-end  by  the  young  worm. 


The  Apple  is  the  most  important  American  fruit.     It 
may  be  had  in  its  fresh  state  the  whole  year  through. 


THE    ORCHARD 


159 


Fig.  00. —  Section  of  wormy  apple;  a,  codling  moth;  b,  cocooti. 

The  tree  is  one  of  the  largest  and  longest-lived  of  fruit 
trees.  It  begins  bearing  when  from  three  to  eight  years 
of  age,  and  sometimes  lives  nearly  or 
quite  a  century.  It  is  grown  with 
more  or  less  success  throughout  the 
United  States  and  Southern  Canada. 
The  trees  are  commonly  planted 
when  about  three  years  old,  and 
should  not  be  set  less  than  twenty- 
five  feet  apart  both  ways.  They 
should  be  pruned  somewhat  each 
year  to  prevent  the  branches  from 
growing  too  thickly. 

The  Codling   Moth The  apple 

is  much  injured  by  an  insect  called 
the  "  codling  moth,"  of  which  the 
maggot  form  lives  in  the  fruit,  caus-     ^ig.  91  — "aiiry  wood- 


i6o 


THE   ORCHARD 


ing  "  wormy  apples."  It  is  estimated  that  this  worm  has 
caused  over  $7,000,000  damage  each  year  in  the  states  of 
Nebraska,  IlHnois  and  New  York  alone.  The  codling 
moth  can  be  controlled  pretty  well  by  spraying  the  trees 
soon  after  the  flowering  period  with  water  containing 
Paris  green  stirred  in  it,  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  two 
hundred  gallons. 

The  woodpecker  finds  the  worm  hidden  in  his  silken 
cocoon  under  the  scales  of  the  bark  of  the  apple  tree. 
This  bird  should  not  be  killed.  He  is  doing  a  good  work 
in  destroying  the  worms  that  would  otherwise  spoil  many 
apples. 

THE  PLUM  AND  CHERRY. 

The  Plum  and  Cherry  are  favorite  fruits  which  can  be 
grown  over  much  of  the  United  States  and  parts  of 
Canada.  They  grow  on  small  trees  that  begin  to  bear 
when   they    are   three    or    four   years    old.     The    trees 

are  planted  in  the  orchard 
when  they  are  about  two 
years  old,  and  are  set  about 
sixteen  feet  apart  each 
way. 

The  Curculio —  An  insect 
called  the  curculio  troubles 
the  fruit  by  laying  an  tgg  in 
it.  The  tgg  hatches  into  a 
maggot  that  lives  on  the 
fruit  until  full  grown.  It  is 
usually  this  maggot  that  causes  plums  to  drop  before 
they  are  ripe,  and  that  causes  "  wormy  "  cherries.     The 


Fig.  92. —  The  plum  tree  curculio; 
a,  the  larva;  b,  the  pupa;  c,  the 
beetle;  d,  citrculio,  on  young 
plum.  The  straight  lines  indicate 
the  average  natural  length. 


THE   ORCHARD  l6i 

curculio  may  be  caught  by  jarring  it  ofif  the  trees  early 
in  the  morning  on  a  sheet  spread  on  the  ground.  The 
insect  is  then  stiff  from  the  cold  and  so  does  not  fly. 

THE  PEACH. 

The  Peach  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  of  all  fruits. 
It  grows  on  a  tree  about  as  large  as  a  plum  tree.  The 
peach  tree  begins  to  bear  fruit  when  three  or  four  years 
of  age.  The  peach  is  not  so  hardy  as  the  plum  or  cherry, 
and  it  succeeds  well  only  in  certain  parts  of  the  country ; 
but  a  few  trees  may  be  planted  in  the  orchard  wherever 
the  winter  is  not  too  cold  for  it,  and  they  will  often  bear 
fruit  enough  for  the  family.  The  fruit  of  the  peach  is 
mostly  borne  on  the  shoots  that  grew  the  season  before, 
hence  it  should  be  pruned  to  make  plenty  of  young  wood. 

Yellows. —  The  peach  is  subject  to  a  disease  called 
"  yellows,"  that  has  entirely  destroyed  many  whole  or- 
chards of  this  tree.  No  remedy  is  known  for  it  but  to 
dig  out  and  burn  the  affected  trees. 

THE  GRAPE. 

The  Grape  is  a  fine  fruit,  that  is  successfully  grown 
over  nearly  all  of  the  United  States.  Every  home  should 
have  at  least  a  few  grape  vines.  They  require  little 
room,  as  they  can  be  trained  upon  a  fence  or  the  wall  of 
a  building,  if  need  be.  Their  fruit,  which  ripens  in  au- 
tumn, is  wholesome  and  delicious.  A  plat  of  ground 
planted  with  grapes  is  called  a  vineyard.  Vines  in  the 
vineyard  are  planted  from  seven  to  ten  feet  apart  both 
ways.     Grape  vines  bear  fruit  when  three  or  four  years 

G.  &  M.  Ag.  11. 


l62  THE    ORCHARD 

old.  The  grape  is  commonly  multiplied  from  cuttings  of 
the  stem. 

Pruning  and  Cultivating —  The  grape  vine  is  a  rapid 
grower,  and  therefore  needs  to  be  severely  pruned  to 
keep  it  within  bounds.  The  best  fruit  is  borne  on  the 
shoots  that  grow  from  the  part  of  the  vine  that  grew 
the  year  before.  In  pruning  the  vine,  we  should  leave 
on  some  of  the  wood  that  grew  the  last  season,  but  should 
cut  off  most  of  the  older  wood.  The  grape  vine  is  com- 
monly tied  to  a  trellis  made  of  wire  or  slats.  Some- 
times it  is  permitted  to  climb  over  an  arbor  or  summer 
house  without  much  pruning,  but  it  is  only  with  careful 
pruning  that  tne  best  grapes  can  be  grown. 

The  ground  between  the  rows  of  grapes  should  be 
well  cultivated  during  the  summer  to  keep  down  weeds. 

In  countries  having  cold  winters,  grape  vines  should 
be  protected  in  winter  as  described  in  the  section  on  the 
raspberry  and  blackberry  in  Lesson  27. 

QUESTIONS  AND. EXERCISES. 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  insects  that  attack  orchard  trees. 
Make  a  list  of  diseases  that  affect  orchard  trees. 

2.  What  is  the  codling  moth?    How  can  it  be  controlled? 

3.  How  may  orchard  trees  be  made  to  bear  fruit  of  a 
desired  variety? 

4.  Why  should  fruit  trees  be  pruned? 


29.    SEMITROPICAL  FRUITS. 

(Chapters  29  and  30  were  prepared  by  Professor  Riley  O.  Johnson, 
State  Normal  School.  Chico,  California.  He  gratefully  acknowledges 
the  aid  of  Professors  E.  J.  Wickson,  E.  W.  Hilgard,  and  C.  W.  Woods- 
worth,  all  of  the  University  of  CaUfornia.) 

No  family  orchard  in  California  is  thought  complete  with- 
out at  least  one  or  two  of  the  citrus  fruits,  such  as  oranges 
and  lemons,  and  a  few  olive  and  fig  trees.  These  are  known 
as  semitropical  fruits  because  they  grow  in  warm,  yet  not 
tropical,  climates.  In  the  United  States,  they  can  be  grown 
with  profit  only  in  California,  Florida,  and  the  delta  region 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  therefore  there  is  always  a  good 
market  for  the  product.  Besides  the  fruit  they  produce, 
the  trees  themselves  are  quite  ornamental,  and  they  also  give 
abundant  shade.  They  are  often  grown  for  these  purposes 
alone. 

The  citrus  fruits  cultivated  in  California  include  the  orange, 
lemon,  lime,  grape  fruit,  and  citron. 

The  Orange.  — The  orange  is  the  most  profitable  of  the 
citrus  fruits  that  can  be  raised  in  California.  Though  it  is 
now  grown  chiefly  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  and  in 
the  Sacramento  Valley,  yet  there  are  doubtless  small  regions 
in  other  parts  of  the  state  well  suited  to  its  growth,  even  in 
large  enough  quantities  for  the  market. 

What  the  Orange  Tree  Needs.  —  The  orange  prefers  a  deep, 
rich,  mellow  soil,  although  it  will  grow  well  in  nearly  every 
kind  of  fertile  soil. 

The  spot  chosen  for  experimenting  must  be  warm  enough 

163 


164  SEMITROPICAL  FRUITS 

SO  that  there  are  no  severe  frosts  to  be  feared,  at  least  no  hard 
freezing. 

The  orange  orchard  must  be  protected  from  winds  either 
by  hills  or  a  grove  of  other  trees. 

There  must  be  plenty  of  water.  If  nature  does  not  supply 
enough,  the  soil  must  be  irrigated.   (See  Lesson  30.) 

Orange  trees  must  be  carefully  pruned  (cut  back)  during 
the  season  when  the  tree  is  not  bearing  fruit.  Only  the  dead 
branches  and  those  no  longer  useful  should  be  cut  off.  There 
is  great  danger  of  cutting  away  too  much.  The  natural 
shape  of  the  crown  of  the  tree  must  be  kept,  as  the  fruit  and 
the  leaves  grow  on  the  ends  of  the  branches. 

The  Lemon.  — The  lemon  likes  best  a  sandy  loam,  though 
it  will  grow  well  in  other  soils  also.  While  the  lemon  does 
not  require  the  heat  necessary  to  produce  the  best  oranges, 
it  will  not,  at  the  same  time,  stand  so  much  cold  as  the  latter. 
The  root  of  the  orange  tree  will  thrive  in  a  greater  variety 
of  soils  than  will  the  root  of  the  lemon  tree,  therefore  it  is 
quite  common  to  graft  the  lemon  (page  80)  on  an  orange 
seedling  stock. 

Owing  to  its  spreading  habit,  the  tree  must  be  carefully 
pruned.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  fruit  will  be  borne  at  the 
end  of  the  long,  willowy  branches,  and  it  will  then  be  im- 
possible to  cultivate  the  ground  as  it  should  be. 

Enemies  of  the  Orange  and  the  Lemon 

Scale  Insects.  —  Chief  among  the  insect  enemies  of  these 
fruits  are  the  soft  scale,  the  red  scale,  and  a  variety  of  the 
latter,  called  the  yellow  scale. 

If  you  look  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  you  may  find 


SEMITROPICAL   FRUITS 


165 


Fig.  93. — Red  Spider.    (From  Station  Bulletin,  Berkeley,  Cal.) 


these  insects  along  the  large  veins.  Here  they  insert  their 
beaks  and  suck  the  sap  which  is  being  carried  upward  to 
the  leaves  and  the  prepared  food  which  the  leaves  send 
downward  to  the  other  portions  of  the  plant.  Scale  insects 
are  also  sometimes  found  on  the  fruit  itself. 

If  the  tree  is  sprayed  with  an  emulsion  of  kerosene  or 
is    fumigated    with 
hydrocyanic      acid 
gas,   these    insects 
will  disappear. 

Red  Spider,  —  In 
some  places  where 
these  fruits  are 
raised,  the  red 
spider  has  become 
a  serious  pest.  The  male  spider  is  much  smaller  than  the 
female.  The  female  lays  from  twelve  to  eighteen  bright 
red  eggs,  which  are  fastened  to  the  under  side  of  the  leaf 
with  threads  of  fine  silk.  These  eggs  hatch  out  in  about 
two  weeks,  and  the  young  spiders  begin  at  once  to  suck 
the  juice  from  the  leaf.     When  grown,  their  bodies  are 

covered  with  spines,  which 
protect  them  from  their  ene- 
mies, the  ladybird  beetles 
and  the  lace-wing  flics. 
White  Fly.  —This  pest  of 
Fig.  94.— White  Fly  with  Wings  Extended,  citrus  trccs  was  unknown  in 
California  until  a  short  time  ago.  As  yet  it  has  appeared  in 
but  a  few  places.  Although  called  a  fly,  it  is  not  one,  since 
it  has  four  wings,  and  the  fly  has  only  two.  It  is  a  near 
relative  of  the  scale  insects,  but  it  does  more  damage  because 


1 66  SEMITROPICAL  FRUITS 

it  has  wings.     It  can  easily  be  told  from  the  other  pests  found 
on  citrus  trees,  because  it  is  snow-white  when  full  grown. 

When  the   wings  are    at   rest,    the    insect    is 

about   the   size   of  the  letter  o  used   in  this 

paragraph. 
The  remedy  is  a  severe  one,  for  the  pest  is 

hard  to  get  rid  of.    The  tree  must  be  stripped 

Fig  Jl^whiteFiyOf  its  Icavcs  and  thoroughly  fumigated  before 
with  Wings  Closed.  ^^^  j^^^^^^  j^  ^^^^^^  ^^  nothing  can  be  done  to 

save  the  tree. 

Diseases  of  Citrus  Trees 

Gum  Disease.  —  This  disease,  which  usually  affects  the 
trunk  of  the  tree  near  the  ground,  sometimes  comes  as  a 
result  of  letting  irrigation  water  come  in  contact  with  the 
stem  of  the  tree.  By  keeping  this  water  from  touching  the 
tree,  one  cause  of  the  disease  will  be  removed. 

Other  causes,  still  unknown,  however,  are  likely  to  produce 
the  disease.  From  whatever  source  the  trouble  comes,  the 
portion  of  the  bark  which  is  diseased  must  be  cut  away,  also 
the  diseased  wood  beneath,  and  the  wound  covered  with 
something,  such  as  rubber  paint,  which  will  keep  the  sap 
from  running  out.  Removing  the  soil  from  the  lower  part 
of  the  trunk  is  also  helpful. 

Chlorosis.  — This  disease  causes  the  leaves  of  the  tree  to 
turn  yellow.  In  the  case  of  the  orange  and  lemon  it  is  com- 
monly brought  about  by  the  lack  in  the  subsoil  (page  30)  of 
some  food  element  that  the  tree  needs,  or  else  by  there  being 
too  much  of  some  one  element.  Orange  and  lemon  trees  re- 
quire lime,  but  many  California  soils  have  in  them  more  lime 


SEMITROPICAL    FRUITS  167 

than  is  needed.  Since  it  cannot  be  taken  out,  the  only  remedy 
is  to  plant  the  orchard  in  a  soil  that  has  less.  Limy  soils  are 
generally  of  a  whitish  color,  but  the  way  to  be  certain  is  to 
take  a  h'ttlc  of  the  subsoil  and  pour  on  it  a  few  drops  of  nitric 
acid.  If  many  bubbles  are  given  off,  lime  is  probably  pres- 
ent in  large  quantities,  and  oranges  and  lemons  will  not 
thrive  well  in  this  ground. 

The  Olive 

The  olive  does  best  in  a  well-drained  soil,  though,  like 
the  orange  and  the  lemon,  it  will  yield  good  crops  in  a  variety 
of  soils.  It  prefers  warm,  dry  climates,  but  will  withstand 
some  frost.  It  can  be  grown  from  buds,  seeds,  grafts,  tips 
of  twigs,  cuttings,  sprouts,  suckers,  and  layers,  but  because 
it  is  a  slow  grower,  the  first  three  methods  are  not  often  used. 

Olive  trees  do  not  begin  bearing  until  about  eight  years  of 
age.  They  have  been  known  to  live  to  be  a  thousand  years 
old  and  to  attain  a  height  of  forty  feet. 

The  fruit  is  sometimes  pickled  in  brine  and  sometimes 
dried.  Great  quantities  are  also  grown  for  the  oil  which  is 
very  abundant  in  the  fruit.  The  tree  is  very  free  from  insect 
enemies  and  is  useful  as  an  ornamental  as  well  as  a  shade 
tree. 

The  Fig 

No  fruit  can  be  grown  more  generally  over  the  state  of 
California  than  the  fig,  and  no  other  with  so  little  care  and 
risk.  This  tree  will  thrive  well  on  any  soil  one  would  think 
of  selecting  for  any  of  the  common  orchard  trees,  though 
it  will  succeed  on  a  wider  range  of  soils  than  will  any  of  the 
others.     It  will  bear  well  in  any  climate  warm  enough  to 


1 68 


SEMITROPICAL  FRUITS 


ripen  the  fruit  and  not  cold  enough  to  kill  the  tree.    The 

fig  should  have  plenty  of  moisture,  but  not  too  much. 
In  the  orchard,  the  trees  should  be  set  forty  or  more  feet 

apart,  unless  they  are  to  be  thinned  later,  as  the  tree  is  a 

wonderful  spreader.  If 
planted  this  far  apart, 
smaller  fruit  trees  may  be 
planted  between  the  rows 
and  removed  after  several 
years,  when  the  fig  trees 
are  in  need  of  the  room. 
In  pruning,  little  except 
the  cross  branches  need 
be  cut  off  after  the  shape 
has  become  outlined.  Not 
more  than  three  limbs 
should  be  allowed  to  grow 
out  from  the  trunk,  and 
these  should  be  well 
placed  around  it. 

Fig  trees  begin  bearing 
at  from  two  to  three  years 
of  age,  and  several  crops 
a  year  are  produced.    Like 

the  olive,  the  fig  has  few  insect  pests. 


Fig.  96. — San  Jos6  scale  insect;  m,  male  scale;/, 
female  scale;  y,  young  scale,  a,  young  insect. 
Enlarged. 


San  Jose  Scale 

One  of  the  most  troublesome  pests  of  citrus  and  many 
other  fruit  trees  is  the  San  Jose  scale.  It  does  not 
look  like  an  insect  at  all.  Little  gray  or  black  specks  in 
patches  on  the  limbs  or  on  the  trunks  of  fruit  trees  are 


SEMITROPICAL  FRUITS  1 69 

all  that  may  be  seen.  Under  these  scales  are  the  little 
animals  that  are  doing  the  damage  by  sucking  the  juices 
of  the  plant.  Most  of  the  states  of  the  Union  have  laws 
forbidding  the  shipping  into  the  state  of  nursery  stock  that 
is  infected  with  this  pest.  It  spreads  very  rapidly  through 
an  orchard  when  it  is  once  introduced.  The  surest  way 
to  prevent  its  spreading  is  to  bum  the  affected  trees. 
There  are  other  methods  of  destroying  the  scale  which,  if 
carried  out  with  great  care  and  thoroughness,  may  kill  the 
scale  and  prevent  its  spreading.  One  of  the  most  success- 
ful methods  is  by  spraying  with  the  lime  and  sulphur 
mixture. 
Lime  and  Sulphur  Mixture. — 

20  pounds  lime 

14  pounds  sulphur 

40  gallons  water 
Boil  one  hour  and  apply  while  still  warm.    This  must 
be  applied  before  the  buds  come  out  in  the  spring,  for  it 
will  destroy  opened  buds  and  foliage. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  are  citrus  fruits?    Where  are  they  grown? 

2.  Why  is  the  lemon  grafted  on  an  orange  seedling  stock? 

3.  In  selecting  a  soil  for  oranges  and  lemons,  what  kind 
must  be  avoided? 

4.  What  are  the  chief  insect  enemies  of  citrus  trees? 
How  is  each  controlled? 

5.  Tell  what  you  know  about  the  oUve  tree. 


30.     IRRIGATION  AND  DRY  FARMING. 

Irrigation. — In  the  West,  there  are  vast  tracts  of  land 
where  but  little  rain  falls.  These  are  commonly  known  as 
arid  regions.  There  are  other  great  areas  where  rain  falls 
only  during  the  winter  season.  In  order  that  crops  may 
be  grown  in  these  regions,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
water  be  supplied  by  irrigation. 


Fig.  97. — Dam  of  an  irrigation  reservoir. 

Methods  of  Irrigating. — Water  for  this  purpose  is  often 

obtained  from  wells,  and  sewage  from  cities  is  sometimes 

used  on  farms  lying  near,  but  most  of  the  water  used  comes 

from  streams.    When  there  is  any  likelihood  that  the  stream 

170 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRY   FARMING  171 

from  which  the  water  is  taken  will  dry  up  during  the  season 
when  water  is  needed,  reservoirs  are  built  so  that  a  greater 
part  of  the  winter  rainfall  may  be  used.  Quite  a  number  of 
methods  of  applying  water  by  irrigation  are  in  use,  but 
those  most  common  are  sprinkling,  flooding,  and  by 
furrows. 

Sprinkling.  —  Of  the  three  methods  named,  this  one  most 
nearly  resembles  the  method  by  which  nature  furnishes 
water  to  growing  plants.  But  in  spite  of  this  fact,  sprinkling 
is  no  doubt  the  poorest  of  the  three  methods.  To  apply  a 
sufficient  amount  of  water  at  one  time  by  this  method  re- 
quires a  very  slow  application  for  a  long  time,  for  if  applied 
too  rapidly,  the  ground,  if  it  is  not  sandy,  becomes  packed 
and  hardened.  In  this  condition  air,  which  the  plant  needs, 
cannot  get  through  the  soil,  and  the  roots  also  find  it  difficult 
to  push  through  it.  There  is  also  very  rapid  evaporation 
from  the  surface  unless  the  soil  is  stirred  soon  after  the 
sprinkling.  This  results  in  great  waste  of  moisture,  and  a 
second  sprinkling  is  necessary  in  a  short  time.  If  practiced 
in  regions  where  there  is  no  rainfall  in  summer,  it  must  be 
repeated  often  and  a  sufficient  amount  put  on  to  wet  the  soil 
to  a  considerable  depth.  Otherwise  the  plant  will  develop 
a  shallow  root  system  and  will  be  completely  dependent  upon 
water  thus  applied  all  through  the  growing  season.  On  the 
other  hand,  plants  which  have  a  deep-rooting  system  are  often 
able,  after  a  while,  to  draw  their  needed  supply  of  moisture 
from  the  water  in  the  subsoil. 

Flooding.  —  This  method  is  used  only  where  an  abundance 
of  water  can  be  had  and  where  the  land  to  be  irrigated  is 
quite  le-vel  or  can  be  made  so.  As  in  the  case  of  sprinkling, 
there  will  be  rapid  evaporation  unless  the  surface  of  the 


172  IRRIGATION  AND  DRY  FARMING 

ground  is  stirred  soon  after  the  water  is  put  on.  A  great 
disadvantage  in  this  method  is  the  long  time  necessary  in 
order  to  put  on  enough  water  to  do  any  good.  This  is  neces- 
sarily so  because  of  the  fact  that  the  air  in  the  soil  prevents, 
after  a  little,  the  rapid  soaking  up  of  the  water,  as  the  in- 
creasing weight  of  the  water  prevents  the  escape  of  the  air 
in  that  direction.  This  method  might  be  used  to  advan- 
tage in  connection  with  the  system  of  dry  farming  described 
later  in  this  chapter. 


Furrow  System  of  Irrigatioa 


The  Furrow  Method. — Of  all  the  methods  of  irrigation, 
the  furrow  method  is  most  commonly  used.  One  of  its 
chief  advantages  lies  in  the  fact  that  by  it  the  subsoil  be- 
comes so  soaked  that  a  deep-rooting  system  is  developed. 
By  this  method,  water  reaches  the  surface  of  the  ground 
only  by  capillary  attraction  (page  14),  hence  the  soil  does 
not  become  so  packed  as  to  shut  out  the  air  and  hinder  the 
roots  from  growing  downward. 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRY  FARMING  1 73 

The  furrows  should  usually  be  run  off  from  three  to  eight 
feet  apart,  depending,  of  course,  on  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
that  is,  as  to  its  readiness  to  soak  up  water.  This  may  easily 
be  determined  by  experiment  before  the  furrows  are  laid 
out.  After  the  water  has  been  shut  off  from  the  furrow  and 
the  surface  has  become  dry  enough,  the  furrow  should  be 
filled  again  to  prevent  too  rapid  evaporation.  Losses  due 
to  this  cause  often  amount  to  as  much  as  50  per  cent  of  the 
water  applied.  Experience  has  proved  that  wide  and  deep 
furrows  are  much  better  than  narrow  and  shallow  ones. 
Where  the  former  are  used,  it  is  possible  to  fill  the  furrows 
much  sooner  after  irrigation,  thus  preventing  great  loss  by 
evaporation,  and  the  water  also  sinks  to  a  greater  depth  in 
the  soil,  thus  rendering  it  unnecessary  to  apply  the  water 
so  often. 

Dry  Farming.  —  In  the  semiarid  regions  of  the  western 
part  of  the  United  States,  where  the  rainfall  for  the  entire 
year  is  not  enough  to  mature  a  crop,  a  system  of  cultivation 
known  as  "  dry  farming  "  is  coming  to  be  practiced  more 
and  more.  It  should  not  be  inferred  from  the  name  that 
by  the  practice  of  this  system  plants  are  able  to  thrive  on 
smaller  quantities  of  water  than  in  other  cases.  The  system 
consists  in  carefully  preserving  the  moisture  which  falls  dur- 
ing an  entire  year.  During  this  year  the  land  is  riot  sowed  to 
crops,  but  is  so  treated  as  to  permit  of  a  very  small  amount 
of  evaporation.  The  surface  is  constantly  kept  loose,  being 
stirred  after  each  rain  of  any  considerable  amount.  Before 
planting,  a  machine  called  a  subsurface  packer  is  run  over 
the  ground.  This  machine  consists  of  a  number  of  wheels 
placed  five  inches  apart  on  a  shaft,  each  wheel  being  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter.    The  rim  of  each  wheel  is  one  inch  thick 


174  IRRIGATION  AND  DRY  FARMING 

at  the  inner  part,  and  is  slanted  two  and  a  half  inches  to  a 
sharp  outer  edge.  A  weight  of  about  five  hundred  pounds 
is  so  placed  as  to  make  these  wheels  sink  well  into  the  ground, 
packing  the  soil  quite  firmly  beneath  the  surface  and  leaving 
the  surface  itself  loose  and  mellow.  A  mulch  (page  53)  is 
thus  formed  which  reduces  evaporation  to  the  least  possible 
amount.  After  the  crop  is  planted,  the  soil  is  kept  loose  at 
the  surface  until  the  crop  is  matured.  The  moisture  pre- 
served through  one  year  by  this  system  is  often  sufficient 
for  the  maturing  of  crops  through  three  or  four  following 
years.  If  practiced  in  moist  regions  during  dry  years,  this 
system  would  add  greatly  to  the  yield. 

The  principles  of  dry  farming  might  be  put  to  good  use 
in  both  the  arid  regions  of  the  West  and  those  regions  where 
there  is  a  good  winter  rainfall.  In  the  former  areas,  where 
land  can  be  flooded,  one  application  of  water  would  be 
enough  for  an  entire  season.  In  .regions  having  a  winter 
rainfall,  the  moisture  could  be  so  preserved  that  irrigation 
would  be  wholly  unnecessary,  and  heavy  yields  would 
result  each  year. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  are  arid  regions? 

2.  What  are  the  chief  methods  of  applying  water  in 
irrigation? 

3.  Describe  the  furrow  method  of  irrigation. 

4.  What  is  dry  farming?  By  what  methods  is  it  carried 
on? 

5.  Describe  a  subsurface  packer. 


31.     ANIMALS  THAT  DESTROY  INSECTS. 


Natural  Destroyers. —  We  might  greatly  reduce  the 
number  of  insects  and  worms  that  destroy  our  crops,  by 
taking  care  not  to  destroy  the  animals  that  feed  upon 
them.  We  have  been  so 
careless  in  destroying  in- 
sects, toads,  and  birds  that 
live  upon  the  insects 
which  do  us  harm,  that 
these  insects  have  greatly 
increased  in  number  and 
have  become  pests.  If  all 
would  study  to  preserve 
the  friends  and  to  destroy 
the  enemies  of  our  crops, 
we  should  be  rid  of  the  de- 
structive insects  in  a  short 
time. 

Insects.^ — The  Ichneu- 
mon Fly  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  as  well  as  val- 
uable, of  insects.  As  will  be  noticed  from  the  picture, 
it  is  boring  into  the  trunk  of  a  tree.     It  is  doing  no 

'  There  is  a  popular  notion  that  all  small  animals,  such  as  flies,  spiders,  and 
the  cpral  animals  in  the  sea,  are  insects.  This  is  a  mistake,  as  neither  the 
spiders  nor  the  coral  polyps  belong  to  the  insect  class.  The  word  insect  is 
applied  properly  to  those  animals  which  have  bodies  divided  into  three  distinct 
sections:  the  head,  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen.  From  the  head  there  springs 
a  pair  of  feelers  called  antennae,  and  from  the  thorax  six  legs  grow.  The 
wasp  is  a  good  illustration  of  an  insect.  The  spider  has  but  two  distinct  parts, 
and  comes  under  another  class. 

175 


Fig.  gg. — Ichneumon  fly 


176 


ANIMALS   THAT    DESTROY    INSECTS 


harm,  however.  It  is  seeking  to  deposit  its  eggs  in  the 
larvae  of  an  insect  that  has  bored  deeply  into  the  trunk  of 
the  tree.  The  eggs  of  the  ichneumon  fly  hatch  out  and 
live  on  these  larvae,  causing  the  death  of  the  borer.     Ich- 


FiG.  100. — Garden  spider. 

neumon  flies  are  in  search  of  the  larvae  of  moths,  butter- 
flies, etc.,  in  which  to  deposit  their  eggs.     As  the  ichneu- 


FiG.  101. — Lady-bird  beetles,  or  "lady  bugs."     The  straight  lines  represent  the  average 
natural  length.    These  beetles  are  very  destructive  to  plant  lice. 

mon  fly  hatches  and  becomes  a  fly  in  about  fifteen  days, 
it  will  destroy  any  larvae  in  which  it  is  deposited.^ 


*  All  insects  begin  life  as  a  tiny  egg.  This  may  be  laid  under  the  bark  of  a 
tree,  in  the  fruit,  on  the  water,  or  in  the  dirt.  After  a  time  the  egg  begins  to 
hatch.  It  usually  produces  a  little  worm-like  creature,  called  a  larva.  This  is 
sometimes  called  the  grub  or  the  caterpillar  stage.  The  larva  may  have 
numerous  feet  and  two  strong  jaws.  It  is  very  hungry,  eats  a  great  deal  and 
grows  rapidly.     After  a  few  days,  it  is  fully  grown,  and  may  change  into  the 


ANIMALS    THAT    DESTROY   INSECTS 


177 


Fig.  102. — Dragon  fly. 

Lady  Bugs  are  small  beetles,  with  bright-colored,  scaly 
wings.  They  feed  on  plant  lice  scales  and  the  eggs  and 
larvae  of  other  insects.  They 
are  among  the  most  valuable 
of  insect  destroyers,  and 
should  be  welcomed  in  the 
house  and  in  the  garden. 

Dragon  flies  are  beautiful 
insects  with  gauzy  wings. 
They  may  be  seen  about 
ponds  and  streams  in  the 
summer  time.  They  are  the 
great  enemies  of  the  mos- 
quitoes, the  gnats,  and  the  flies.     They  dart  through  the 


Fig.   103. — Larva    and   eggs    of 
dragon  fly. 


pupa.  In  this  state,  it  eats  nothing.  If  it  is  a  butterfly  or  moth,  it  wraps 
itself  in  a  silken  covering  or  wraps  a  leaf  about  itself,  and  may  stay  in  this 
condition  for  some  months.  At  last,  however,  it  breaks  through  its  cover- 
ing and  becomes  a  fully  developed  insect.  This,  its  last  state  before  death,  is 
called  the  imago  state.  The  life  history  of  each  kind  of  insect  varies  some- 
what, but  almost  all  insects  pass  through  the  forms  egg,  larva,  pupa,  and  imago. 
G.  &  M.  Ag.  12. 


lyS 


ANIMALS    THAT    DESTROY    INSECTS 


air,  and  catch  many  small  insects  on  the  wing.  When 
they  alight,  they  still  keep  their  wings  outspread.  They 
lay  their  eggs  on  the  stems  of  water 
plants  or  on  the  water. 

Damsel  Flies  are  much  like  the 
dragon  flies,  but  are  smaller  and  fold 
their  wings  over  the  back  when  they 
are  at  rest. 

Toads —  These  homely  looking  an- 
imals are  very  useful  in  ridding  us 
of  harmful  insects.  If  we  knew  all 
the  good  that  they  do  by  feeding  on 
insects,  we  should  not  think  them  so 
ugly,  and  we  certainly  should  never 
stone  them  or  kill  them.  Insects  de- 
stroy every  year  over  $300,000,000 
worth  of  our  crops.  A  large  part  of 
this  might  be  saved  if  we  should  pro- 
tect the  toads  and  increase  their  num- 
ber. There  is  a  popular  idea  that 
toads  will  make  warts  if  they  are  handled.  This  is  an 
error.     The  toad  is  perfectly  harmless. 

Bring  a  pair  of  toads  into  the  house,  and  watch  the 
good  work  that  they  do.  A  room  may  be  cleared  of 
cockroaches  by  leaving  a  toad  in  it  over  night. 

Get  acquainted  with  the  habits  of  the  toads.  You  will 
find  their  study  very  interesting.  Have  you  seen  the  large 
masses  of  bead-like  eggs  that  the  female  toad  lays  ? 
Have  you  seen  the  tadpoles  that  have  been  hatched  from 
the  eggs?  Have  you  watched  their  growth  from  tad- 
poles to  toads  ? 


Fig.  104. — A  damsel  fly. 


ANIMALS    THAT   DESTROY    INSECTS 


179 


Fig.  105. — Toad. 


If  you  wish  to  raise  a  colony  of  toads,  place  a  pair  on 
a  stone  partly  out  of  the  water  in  a  partly  filled  pail  or 
jar.  After  the  eggs  are 
laid,  watch  them  as 
they  hatch  into  tad- 
poles. The  tadpoles 
should  be  fed  with  bits 
of  meat  or  bread,  until 
they  change  into  toads. 

Keep  the  garden  well 
stocked  with  toads,  and 
very  little  damage  from 
insects  need  be  feared. 

Birds. —  The  largest  number  of  the  birds  that  fly  about 
our  homes  are  insect  destroyers.  Besides  delighting  the 
eye  with  their  beauty  and  filling  the  world  full  of  song, 
they  are  saving  the  farmers  millions  of  dollars  each  year. 
How  foolish  it  is  to  shoot  these  valuable  birds  or  to  rob 
their  nests ! 

The  birds  living  on  insects  have  greatly  decreased  in 
number  in  the  past  few  years,  and  the  insects  have  in- 
creased so  greatly  that  the  farmer  and  the  gardener  have 
been  put  to  extra  labor  to  preserve  their  crops. 

The  birds  living  largely  on  insects,  worms,  etc.,  are 
swallows,  martins,  vireos,  woodpeckers,  chickadees,  wrens, 
cuckoos,  swifts,  and  fly-catchers. 

The  robin  and  the  blue  bird  live  on  about  equal  quan- 
tities of  insects  and  fruit.  Because  they  come  so  early 
in  the  spring  and  destroy  so  many  of  the  insects  before 
they  have  laid  their  eggs  for  the  season,  these  birds  are 
of  great  value. 


i8o 


ANIMALS    THAT    DESTROY    INSECTS 


Every  means  should  be  taken  to  attract  the  above  men- 
tioned birds  to  our  homes.  They  should  be  encouraged 
to  nest  in  our  trees  and  in  our  barns.  We  should  plant 
trees  that  bear  berries  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  birds  may 
have  food  for  the  winter  months,  when  they  can  find  no 
insects.  Bird  houses  should  be  built,  and,  when  the  sea- 
son is  dry,  gourds  or  small  pails  containing  water  should 
be  hung  near  their  nesting  places,  and  food  furnished  if 


Fig.  io6. — Simple  bird  bouses. 

necessary.  Very  comfortable  nesting  places  may  be  made 
out  of  old  tin  cans  that  are  thrown  away.  The  top  of  the 
can  may  be  bent  back  and  nailed  to  a  board  or  any  flat 
surface  (Figure  io6,  a).  Then  cut  a  small  hole  in  the 
bottom  of  the  can,  allowing  the  tin  partly  cut  out  to  pro- 
ject for  a  resting  place.  The  cans  may  be  grouped,  as 
suggested  in  Figure  io6,  b,  and  held  together  with  a  hoop. 
Two  boards  may  be  nailed  together  for  a  roof. 


CUCKOO 


HOUSE  WREN 


BANK  SWALLOW 


BARN  SWALLOW 


BLUEBIRD 


KING-BIRD 


RED  WINGED 
BLACKBIRD 


BROWN  THRUSH  CROW  BLACKBIRD 


AMERICAN  CROW 


CAT  BIRD 


ENGLISH  SPARROW 


Fig.  107. — Food  of  some  common  birds. 


(i8ij 


l82  ANIMALS    THAT    DESTROY    INSECTS 

The  English  sparrow  is  not  a  desirable  bird  for  the 
United  States.  It  not  only  eats  much  grain  and  vegetable 
matter,  but  has  driven  out  a  number  of  birds  that  are 
valuable  as  insect  destroyers.  We  should  take  means  to 
rid  ourselves  of  this  troublesome  little  fellow.^ 

Just  after  a  bird  has  hatched,  its  stomach  is  very  deli- 
cate, and  it  can  digest  animal  food  only.  For  that  rea- 
son, all  nestlings  are  fed  on  worms  and  insects.  Even 
the  birds  that  live  mostly  on  grain  and  fruit  when  they 

^  The  English  sparrow  is  doing  more  damage  to  property  than  all  the  other 
birds  in  our  latitude  put  together,  and,  as  an  agent  of  destruction  to  our  native 
birds,  the  sparrow  is  unexcelled.  No  other  bird  will  stay  long  where  sparrows 
are  once  located.  It  means  persecution  in  detail  by  individual  sparrows  and 
by  mobs  of  them  till  all  self-respecting  birds  are  compelled  to  leave  the  locality. 
The  English  sparrow  is  the  only  bird  that  carries  on  a  systematic  attack  upon 
the  homes  of  its  neighbors.  It  has  been  seen  by  many  obsei'vers  in  different 
localities  to  visit  the  nests  of  its  neigiibors  in  the  absence  of  the  parent  birds 
and  to  throw  the  young  nestlings  out  upon  the  ground,  in  some  cases  dropping 
them  ten  to  fifteen  feet  to  tlie  foot  of  the  tree.  The  sparrows  are  with  us 
all  the  year  round,  and,  unlike  most  of  our  native  birds,  their  food  is  almost 
entirely  grain.  They  are,  then,  no  substitute  for  the  insectivorous  birds  that 
they  expel,  and  they  are  a  filthy  nuisance  about  the  barns  and  granaries  as 
well  as  the  dwellings  where  they  congregate.  '  They  are  a  greater  pest  than 
rats  and  mice,  and  they  are  more  difficult  to  combat.  The  most  effective 
method  of  dealing  with  the  sparrow  is  by  poison.  During  the  winter  months, 
if  a  platform  be  built  above  the  reach  of  the  poultry,  and  the  sparrows  be  fed 
there  regularly  in  order  to  accustom  them  to  the  place,  they  may  be  easily 
poisoned.  The  recipe  I  quote  from  an  article  by  E.  B.  Clark,  in  The  Outing 
of  January,  1901:  "Mix  a  drachm  of  strychnine  with  three  quarts  of  boiling 
water,  .  Let  the  mixture  boil  until  the  poison  is  entirely  dissolved.  Into  the 
poisoned  water  pour  a  sufficient  quantity  of  wheat  to  absorb  the  liquid.  Put 
the  mixture  aside  for  forty-eight  hours.  The  wheat  will  be  found  to  have 
swollen  greatly.  Spread  it  over  the  bottom  of  a  large  pan  and  place  it  in  an 
oven  until  thoroughly  dry.  It  must  not,  however,  be  allowed  to  scorch  in 
the  least.  English  sparrows  consider  wheat  prepared  in  this  way  as  a  great 
tidbit.  It  gives  to  them  a  swift  and  painless  death."  This  method  reaches 
a  hundred  of  the  sparrows  to  ten  that  can  be  reached  during  any  other  part 
of  the  year,  and  farmers  ought  to  bestir  themselves,  or  the  useful  native  birds 
will  be  exterminated  or  driven  away  by  these  sparrow  pests.  We  must  deal 
with  the  sparrows  as  we  deal  with  rats  and  mice,  and  no  false  sentiment  ought 
to  be  allowed  to  enter  into  the  matter. — Prof.  O.  G.  Libby. 


ANIMALS   THAT   DESTROY   INSECTS  183 

are  full  grown,  are  very  valuable  in  destroying  insects, 
grubs,  etc.,  when  they  are  feeding  their  young.^ 

Examination  of  the  stomachs  of  different  birds  (see 
Figure  107)  shows  what  birds  are  of  the  greatest  value  to 
the  farmer. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  How  does  the  ichneumon  fly  help  the  farmer? 

2.  What  is  the  food  of  lady  bugs? 

3.  Tell  how  the  dragon  fly  lives,  and  what  food  it  eats. 

4.  Of  what  value  are  toads? 

5.  What  do  house  wrens  eat? 

6.  WTiy  should  most  birds  be  encouraged  to  make  their 
homes  near  us? 

'During  the  outbreak  of  Rocky  Mountain  locusts  in  Nebraska  in  1874-1877, 
Prof.  Samuel  Aughey  saw  a  long-billed  marsh  wren  carry  thirty  locusts  to  her 
young  in  an  hour.  At  this  rate,  for  seven  hours  a  day,  a  brood  would  consume 
210  locusts  per  day,  and  the  passerine  birds  of  the  eastern  half  of  Nebraska,  al- 
lowing only  twenty  broods  to  the  square  mile,  would  destroy  daily  162,771,000 
of  the  pests.  The  average  locust  weighs  about  fifteen  grains,  and  is  capable  each 
day  of  consuming  its  own  weight  of  standing  forage  crops,  which  at  $10.00  per 
ton  would  be  worth  $1,743.97.  This  case  may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  vast 
good  that  is  done  every  year  by  the  destruction  of  insect  pests  fed  to  nestling  birds. 
And  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  nesting  season  is  also  that  time  when  the 
destruction  of  injurious  insects  is  most  needed,  that  is,  at  the  period  of  greatest 
agricultural  activity  and  before  the  parasitic  insects  can  be  depended  on  to  reduce 
the  pests.  The  encouragement  of  birds  to  nest  on  the  farm  and  the  discouragement 
of  nest  robbing  are  therefore  more  than  mere  matters  of  sentiment;  they  return 
in  actual  cash  equivalent,  and  have  a  definite  bearing  on  the  success  or  failure  of 
the  crops. — Year  Book  of  the  Department  oj  Agriculture. 


32.     ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY. 

Importance  of  the  Subject —  There  is  a  large  market 
for  meats,  butter,  eggs,  lard,  etc.  The  demand  for  wool, 
leather,  furs,  feathers,  glue,  horns,  etc.,  is  also  large. 
Wild  animals  can  not  supply  these  wants  entirely.  Ani- 
mals must,  therefore,  be  raised  on  the  farm.  The  pro- 
duction of  animals  and  of  animal  products,  such  as  milk, 
butter,  eggs  and  wool,  is  a  very  important  branch  of 
farming. 

What  Must  be  Learned. —  Animal  husbandry  requires 
a  different  kind  of  knowledge  from  that  required  for 
grain,  fruit  or  vegetable  growing.  Animals  require  more 
attention  than  field  crops.  Their  food,  drink,  light,  and 
the  air  that  they  breathe,  all  need  to  be  looked  after.  The 
care  of  their  young  demands  careful  attention.  To  learn 
to  feed  animals  in  the  way  that  is  best  for  their  develop- 
ment and  also  least  expensive  to  the  farmer,  requires 
constant  study. 

Economy  in  Raising  Animals. —  As  we  have  learned 
in  previous  lessons,  the  selling  of  crops  from  the  land 
removes  the  richest  part  of  the  land.  Unless  this  is  re- 
turned to  the  soil  in  some  form,  the  soil  will  become 
"  poor,"  and  it  will  be  impossible  to  produce  ^od  crops. 
When  animals  are  grown  on  the  farm,  however,  the  farm 
products  grown  from  the  soil  are  fed  to  the  animals,  and 
are  largely  returned  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  manure. 
The  animal  products  that  are  sold,  as  meat,  butter,  eggs, 

184 


ANIMAL    HUSBANDRY 


185 


etc.,  take  away  little  fertility  from  the  farm,  and  bring 
to  it  a  comparatively  large  amount  of  money. 

Breeds  of  Live  Stock — As  there  are  many  races  of 
men,  each  having  some  peculiarities  that  distinguish  it 
from  the  others,  so  there  are  great  families  in  the  animal 
world.  These  large  families  having  distinguishing 
qualities  that  are  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring, 
are  called  breeds. 

The  different  breeds  of  farm  animals  have  been  pro- 
duced largely  by  careful  selection  and  the  mating  of  such 
animals  as  have  certain  traits  or  peculiarities  that  man 
desires  to  hold. 

The  various  breeds  of  cattle  are  probably  descended 
from  the  same  stock.  Although  there  are  about  one  hun- 
dred different  breeds  known  in  the  world,  there  are  but 
a  few  that  are  important  for  us  to  know.  They  may  be 
divided  into  two  great  classes,  depending  on  their  pur- 
pose: dairy  breeds  and  beef  breeds.  The  dairy  breeds 
have  for  their  chief  purpose  the  production  of  milk,  butter 
and  cheese.  The  beef  breeds  have  for  their  chief  pur- 
pose the  production  of  flesh  or  beef, 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Name  the  leading  animal  products  that  are  produced 
on  farms. 

2.  How  may  stock  raising  enrich  the  soil? 

3.  Name  the  two  great  classes  of  cattle.  What  is  the 
purpose  of  each? 

4.  Name  the  leading  breeds  of  cattle,  horses,  hogs,  and 
sheep  raised  in  your  home  locality. 


33.     PRINCIPAL  DAIRY  BREEDS  (PI.  V.,  VI.). 


The  Dairy  Type —  In  order  that  the  dairy  cow  may 
produce  much  rich  milk,  she  must  have  a  large  stomach. 

Her  head  is  usually 
small,  but  her  mouth  is 
large.     The    udder    is 


wide  and  full,  extend- 
ing well   forward   and 

Fig   ,o8.-Dairy  type.    (Biggie  Book.)  j^-^j^  ^p  j^^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^_ 

tween  the  legs.  Her  milk  veins  are  large  and  extend 
well  forward  with  many  branches. 
In  general  appearance,  she  is 
loose  and  angular,  and  is  not 
beautiful,  unless  the  motto, 
''Pretty  is  as  pretty  does,"  be  ac- 
cepted. Her  form  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  double  wedge. 

Jersey  Cattle. — These  cattle 
originated  on  the  island  of  Jer- 
sey in  the  English  Channel. 
They  have  been  bred  there  for 
more  than  two  hundred  years,  un- 
mixed with  any  other  breeds.  A 
law  was  passed  in  1779,  forbid- 
ding cattle  of  any  kind  to  be 
brought  to  the  island  for  breed- 
ing. Its  enforcement  has  kept  this  breed  in  its  pure  state. 
The  cows  are  quite  small,  with  deerlike  heads  and  neat 

186 


Inferior  wedge  of  beef  cow. 


Fig.  109. — Contrasts    in 
*'  wedges."  (Biggie  Book.) 


PRINCIPAL  DAIRY  BREEDS  187 

forms.  The  Jersey  cow  is  a  great  butter  producer.  The 
milk  is  very  rich  in  butter  fat,  and  the  cream  rises  more 
rapidly  and  perfectly  than  that  of  most  breeds.  The 
average  Jersey  cows  will  produce  400  pounds  of  butter 
per  year,  and  the  best  have  produced  as  high  as  1,000 
pounds  in  that  time. 

Guernsey  Cattle — This  breed  was  produced  on  the 
island  of  Guernsey,  not  far  from  the  home  of  the  Jerseys. 
Guernsey  cattle  are  somewhat  larger  and  coarser  than  the 
Jerseys,  but  they  resemble  them  in  their  ability  to  produce 
butter.  They  give  a  somewhat  larger  supply  of  milk, 
and  it  is  fully  as  rich  as  that  of  the  Jerseys.  These  are 
very  gentle  cattle,  and  are  very  popular  with  dairymen. 

Ayrshire  Cattle. —  These  cattle  are  natives  of  the  county 
of  Ayr  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Scotland.  They  are 
good  butter  producers,  but  are  classed  chiefly  as  cheese 
cows.  The  quality  of  their  milk  is  good  and  the  quan- 
tity is  large.  The  milk  is  easily  digested  even  by  infants, 
and  is  the  best  for  family  trade.  The  Ayrshires  are 
hardy  and  active.  They  are  able  to  gather  food  from 
scanty  pastures  better  than  other  breeds.  Their  short, 
upward-turned  horns,  the  large  patches  of  red  or  brown 
and  white,  and  the  fine  dairy  form,  make  them  a  very  at- 
tractive breed. 

Holstein-Friesian  Cattle —  These  cattle  are  sometimes 
called  the  Dutch  or  the  Holland  cattle.  The  breed  had 
its  origin  in  Holland,  and  is  the  oldest  distinct  breed  in 
existence.  It  produces  a  larger  quantity  of  milk  than 
any  other  breed.  The  quality  of  the  milk  has  not  been  so 
good  as  that  of  the  other  dairy  breeds,  but  it  has  been 
much  improved  during  the  past  few  years. 


l88  PRINCIPAL    DAIRY    BREEDS 

The  breed  is  of  value  also  for  beef.  The  frame  is  larg-e, 
and  the  color  is  black  and  white/ 

The  Brown  Swiss  Cattle  originated  in  Switzerland. 
They  have  short  heavy  legs,  and  in  size  and  color  resem- 
ble the  Jerseys.  They  are  large  milk  producers,  and  fur- 
nish some  good  beef. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Compare  the  shape,  as  seen  from  side  and  rear,  of 
dairy  cattle  and  beef  cattle. 

2.  Where  did  the  Jersey  cattle  originate?  * 

3.  How  do  Guernsey  cattle  differ  from  Jersey  cattle? 

4.  What  are  some  desirable  qualities  of  Ayrshire  cattle? 

*  The  Dutch  Belted  Cattle  are  much  like  the  IIolstein-Friesian,  from  which 
they  are  derived.  They  are  colored  black  and  white,  the  white  being  in  the 
shape  of  a  blanket  or  belt  around  the  body. 


34.     BEEF  BREEDS  (PI.  VII.,  VIII.). 

The  Beef  Type. —  The  body  of  the  beef  animal  is  well- 
rounded  and  compact.     This  arises  from  its  tendency  to 
lay  on  flesh.     In  gen- 
der     is      much      smaller  ^ig.  no.-Beef  type.    (Biggie  Book.) 

than  in  the  dairy  breeds.     The  short  stout  legs  are  set 
squarely  at  each  corner  of  the  body. 

Shorthorn  Cattle —  This  is  the  most  important  breed 
of  cattle,  and  outnumbers  any  other  breed.  Its  origin  is 
in  Durham  County,  England,  and  for  this  reason  it  was 
formerly  called  "  Durham." 

Some  Shorthorn  cows  produce  a  good  quantity  of  rich 
milk.  Some  herds  are  valuable  as  butter  makers,  and 
others  for  cheese  production ;  but,  as  a  breed,  the  Short- 
horn belongs  in  the  beef  class,  although  some  individuals 
have  made  great  dairy  records. 

The  Shorthorn  is  of  a  quiet  disposition  and  is  easily 
kept,  eating  coarse  fodders,  as  well  as  softer  foods. 

The  Polled  Durham  breed  originated  in  America.  It 
is  very  much  like  the  Shorthorn,  from  which  it  was  de- 
rived, except  that  it  is  hornless. 

The  Hereford  Cattle — The  Herefords  originated  in 
Hereford   County,   in   England.     They  are  distinctly  a 

189 


I go  BEEF   BREEDS 

beef  breed,  the  milk  being  of  little  account.  The  beef  is 
good  and  is  somewhat  mixed  with  fat.  These  animals  are 
hardy  and  adapted  to  cold  climates.  The  face,  breast, 
belly,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  legs,  are  white. 

The  Aberdeen  Angus  Cattle. —  These  are  sometimes 
called  the  Polled  Angus.  They  are  black  like  the  Gallo- 
way breed,  but  differ  from  it  chiefly  in  being  somewhat 
larger  and  finer  in  bone,  head  and  hair.  The  hair  is 
smooth.     They  are  better  adapted  for  indoor  feeding. 

The  Galloway  Cattle. —  The  Galloway  cattle  originated 
in  Scotland.  They  are  a  polled,  or  hornless,  breed.  They 
have  thick  coats  of  black  hair,  and  are  especially  adapted 
to  exposure  and  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  They  are 
very  valuable  for  the  western  part  of  the  United  States,, 
where  they  seek  their  own  food  on  the  plains.  Their 
coats,  when  tanned,  make  good  robes. 

Devon  Cattle. —  Devon  cattle  take  their  name  from  the 
county  of  Devon,  England.  They  are  a  very  old  breed,  and 
were  noted  at  first  for  their  fine  dairy  qualities,  but  of  late 
have  been  valued  chiefly  for  their  fine  quality  of  beef. 

Red  Polled  Cattle  are  very  much  like  the  Devon.  They 
are  becoming  popular  in  this  country. 

The  Simmenthal  Cattle  are  of  Swiss  origin,  and  are 
valuable  for  dairy,  purposes,  for  beef,  and  for  work. 

The  Native  (Scrub)  Cattle — These  are  not  a  pure 
breed,  but  a  mixture  of  breeds.  There  are  a  large  num- 
ber of  these  cattle  in  the  United  States.  Although  many 
Natives  are  valuable  for  one  purpose  or  another,  the  re- 
sults are  very  uncertain.  A  herd  of  Native  cattle  may  be 
greatly  improved  by  placing  at  its  head  a  bull  of  the  type 
toward  which  it  is  desired  to  breed. 


35.      DAIRYING. 


Creameries  and  Cheese  Factories. —  Butter  and  cheese 
were  formerly  made  entirely  on  the  farm.  They  are  now 
made  chiefly  in  fac- 
tories, where  the 
milk  may  be  had  in 
large  quantities.  In 
this  manner,  the  ex- 
pense of  manufac- 
ture is  greatly  re- 
duced. A  more  uni- 
form quality  can 
also  be  secured,  and 
better  opportunities 
for  selling  the  prod- 
ucts are  found.  Some 
dairymen  prefer  to 
make  their  butter  at 
home.  With  proper 
skill  and  care,  excel- 
lent results  are  se- 
cured. The  highest 
prices  are  generally 
received  by  dairy- 
men who  make  their 
own  butter,  provided  they  use  special  care  and  skill  in 
making  it. 


Fig.  III. — Old  fashbned  chum. 


192 


DAIRYING 


Butter  factories  are  called  "  creameries."  Butter  made 
at  a  creamery  is  known  in  the  market  as  "  creamery  but- 
ter." That  made  on  the  farm  is  known  as  "  dairy 
butter." 

The  successful  manufacturer  of  butter  and  cheese  must 
have  more  or  less  special  education  and  training.  These 
can  best  be  acquired  in  a  dairy  school. 


MILK. 

The  Composition  of  Milk Milk  is  the  most  important 

product  of  the  cow  on  the  dairy  farm.     It  is  produced  in 

the  glands  of  the  cow's 
udder.  Milk  is  com- 
posed largely  of  water, 
in  which  fat  globules 
are  floating,  and  in 
which  casein,  albumen, 
sugar,  and  mineral 
matter  or  ash  are  dis- 
solved. Although  the 
amounts  of  these  sub- 
stances vary  greatly, 
the  average  propor- 
tions are  indicated  in 
the  diagram  given 
(Figure  112). 
Milk  is  heavier  than  water.  Although  the  fat  in  milk 
is  lighter  than  water  and  for  that  reason  has  a  tendency 
to  rise,  the  other  substances  in  it  make  the  milk  heavier. 

The  Fat. —  The  fat  in  the  milk  is  the  most  important 
element  in  the  production  of  butter.     It  is  floating  in  the 


Fig.  112.— 'Diagram  showing  ci)mf)osition  of  milk, 
(S.  M.  Babcock.  Wis,  Bui.  No.  6i) 


DAIRYING 


193 


milk  and  a  part  of  it  rises  to  the  top  to  form  cream.  Some 
of  the  fat  globules  do  not  rise  to  the  top.  They  are  held 
down  by  the  albumen  and  sugar  in  the  milk. 

The  fat  globules  vary  in  size.  Milk  from  the  Jerseys 
and  Guernseys  has  larger  globules  than  that  from  the 
Ayrshires  and  the  Holsteins.  Large  globules  are  an  advan- 
tage in  butter  making,  as  they  rise  more  easily  than  the 
small  ones.     Small  globules  are  an  advantage  in  cheese 


Fig.  113. — Appearance  of  milk  under  the  microscope,  showing  the  natural  groupinp  of  the 
fat  globules.  In  the  circle  a  single  group  is  highly  magnified.  (S.  M.  Babcock,  Wis.  Bui. 
No.  61.) 


making,  as  they  do  not  rise  so  quickly,  and  are  held  in  the 
milk  when  it  curdles. 

The  fat  globules  are  collected  in  irregular  groups  in 
milk.  Under  the  microscope,  these  groups  or  families 
may  be  readily  seen. 

The  Sugar —  The  sugar  in  milk  is  not  so  sweet  as  or- 
dinary sugar.  It  is  called  lactose  or  "  sugar  of  milk." 
It  is  prepared  for  the  market  in  some  factories.  It  is  used 
to  make  pills  and  powders  for  holding  medicines. 

G.  &  M.  Ag.  13. 


IQ4  DAIRYING 

When  milk  sours,  the  sugar  is  changed  into  lactic  acid, 
which  gives  to  milk  its  sour  taste. 

Other  Substances  in  Milk. — Casein  is  the  chief  protein 
in  milk.  It  is  of  value  in  cheese  making.  If  rennet  or 
a  weak  acid  be  added  to  milk,  the  casein  is  changed  into  a 
curd,  from  which  the  cheese  is  made. 

Albumen,  another  protein  in  milk,  is  much  like  albumin 
in  the  blood.  It  differs  from  casein  in  that  it  coagulates,  or 
thickens,  when  heated.  It  is  the  skinlike  or  paperlike  sub- 
stance that  appears  on  the  surface  of  skim  milk  when  it  is 
boiled. 

The  ash  in  milk  is  composed  mostly  of  phosphate  of 
lime,  but  there  are  many  other  minerals  found  in  small 
quantities. 

Colostrum. —  The  first  milk  that  the  cow  gives  after 
the  birth  of  a  calf  is  called  colostrum.  It  contains  from 
ten  to  fifteen  times  as  much  albumen  as  the  milk  does  later, 
and  contains  less  fat  and  sugar.  Colostrum  is  sometimes 
called  "  calves'  milk."  It  should  not  be  used  for  at  least 
three  days  after  the  birth  of  the  calf.  It  is  safer  to  wait 
one  week  before  using  the  milk. 

Yield :  Quantity  and  Quality. —  The  average  cow  pro- 
duces about  4,000  pounds  of  milk  per  year.  Some  herds 
will  yield  an  average  of  6,000  pounds  for  each  cow.  In 
one  exceptional  case,  the  yield  for  a  single  cow  reached 
30,000  pounds.  In  general,  the  cow  should  yield  at  least 
six  times  her  live  weight  to  be  a  profitable  member  of  a 
dairy  herd. 

The  profitableness  of  a  dairy  cow  depends  as  much  on 
the  quality  of  the  milk  as  it  does  on  the  quantity.  Milk 
rich  in  fat  and  of  large  quantity  should  be  the  aim  of  all 


DAIRYING 


195 


dairymen.  It  costs  no  more  to  raise  a  cow  that  yields 
fat  sufficient  to  make  300  pounds  of  butter  than  it  does  to 
raise  one  producing  but  200  pounds.  Cows  that  are  not 
profitable  are  called  "  boarders."  The  worst  of  it  is  that 
they  never  pay  for  their  board. 

It  is  well  to  choose  a  breed  that  will  produce  the  desired 
quantity  and  quality  of  milk,  but  that  will  not  be  enough. 
Even  in  the  best  dairy  breeds,  there  are  some  boarders  eat- 
ing up  the  farmer's  profits.  These  should  be  got  rid  of 
as  soon  as  discovered. 

The  Babcock  Test —  The  only  certain  way  to  find  out 
which  cows  in  a  herd  are  profitable  and  which  are  not,  is 
to  make  frequent  tests. 
The  milk  should  be 
weighed,  and  the  amount 
of  butter  fat  determined 
by  the  use  of  the  "  Bab- 
cock Test."  This  test 
was  discovered,  and  the 
machine  for  making  the 
test  invented,  by  Dr. 
S.  M.  Babcock,  of  Mad- 
ison, Wisconsin.  The 
use  of  this  simple  test 
has  been  the  means  of 
improving  dairymen's  herds  and  methods  everywhere. 
Till  this  discovery  was  made,  it  was  difficult  to  tell  where 
profits  or  losses  were  made.  Now  we  have  a  sure  and 
simple  test  that  every  farmer  may  use. 

Full  directions  for  operating  the  Babcock  Test  are  given 
in  the  next  chapter. 


Fig.  114. — Babcock  milk  tester. 


196 


DAIRYING 


The  Importance  of  Rich  Milk  in  Cheese  Making. — 

Even  in  cheese  making,  the  richness  of  milk  is  important. 
The  amount  of  casein  in  milk  increases  with  the  amount  of 
fat.  Besides  this,  the  fat  in  the  milk  makes  the  cheese 
much  richer  and  better  than  it  would  be  without  it.       ' 


|__^X()  l^Vr.  11  lbs.  J      I-   Ki'XV.  KJ.ill)s. 


Fig.  115. — Each  cheese  was  made  from  200  pounds  of  milk. 


A  test  made  in  the  Dairy  School  of  the  University  of 
Wisconsin  shows  that  milk  rich  in  fat  makes  the  largest 
and  best  cheese.  Figure  115  shows  the  result  of  the  test 
plainly. 

HOW  TO  GET  GOOD  MILK. 

Health  of  the  Cow. —  Good  milk  can  be  obtained  only 
from  healthy  cows.  If  cows  have  disease  of  any  kind, 
it  is  liable  to  affect  the  milk. 

The  most  common  of  the  diseases  that  affect  cows  is 
tuberculosis  or  consumption.     It  has  been  found  that  the 


DAIRYING  197 

tuberculin  test  will  show  what  cows  have  the  disease. 
Such  cows  should  be  disposed  of.  Although  cows  may 
be  afflicted  with  tuberculosis  without  spreading  the  disease 
among  those  who  use  the  milk,  it  is  not  safe  to  use  it. 

To  keep  cows  in  a  healthy  condition,  they  should  have 
plenty  of  pure  air,  good  light,  and  clean  stables.  The 
stables  should  be  ventilated,  and  should  not  be  over- 
crowded. Not  less  than  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space 
should  be  allowed  for  each  cow. 

The  stable  should  be  kept  just  as  clean  as  possible.  All 
dirt,  dust,  and  manure  should  be  cleaned  out  regularly. 

Condition  of  the  Cow. —  The  cow  is  a  sensitive  and  af- 
fectionate animal.  The  yield  and  quality  of  the  milk  she 
gives  depend  much  upon  her  mental  condition.  She  be- 
comes acquainted  with  her  milker.  If  he  treats  her  kindly 
she  enjoys  being  milked,  and  yields  her  largest  amount  of 
milk  of  the  highest  quality;  but  if  she  is  afraid  of  her 
milker,  and  if  she  is  scolded  and  abused,  both  the  quantity 
and  the  quality  of  her  milk  are  reduced.  These  facts  have 
been  proved  by  the  most  careful  experiments.  The  wise 
dairyman  will  make  his  cows  comfortable  by  giving  them 
food  and  drink  that  they  enjoy.  He  will  give  them  light 
and  clean  quarters.  He  will  protect  them  from  cold  in 
winter,  and  from  insects  in  summer.  He  will  also  treat 
them  tenderly,  so  as  to  win  their  affection. 

Condition  of  Surroundings —  U  the  cow  produces  good 
milk,  the  milk  may  still  be  spoiled  unless  all  impurities  are 
kept  out  of  it.  The  milker  should  have  clean  clothes  and 
clean  hands,  and  should  milk  into  pails  that  have  been 
thoroughly  washed.  The  cow  should  be  curried  and 
brushed,  so  that  dirt  may  not  fall  into  the  pail  while  milk- 


198 


IDAIRYING 


ing  is  in  progress.  The  udder  should  be  thoroughly 
clean,  and  the  milking  should  be  done  with  dry  hands. 
The  milk  coming  from  a  healthy. cow  is  pure,  but,  if  it  is 
kept  in  a  dirty  stable  or  in  a  milk  room  where  the  air  is 
not  pure,  it  soon  absorbs  the  foul  odors  and  becomes 
tainted. 

Bacteria. —  There  are  many  bacteria  that  get  into  the 
warm  milk,  and  multiply  so  rapidly  that  the  milk  sours. 
To  avoid  the  bacteria,  the  utmost  cleanliness  must  be  ob- 


FiG.  116. — Microscopic  appearance  of  ordinary  milk  showing  fat  globules  and  bacteria  in 
the  milk  serum.  The  cluster  of  bacteria  on  left  side  are  lactic-acid-forming  germs.  (H.  L. 
Russell,  Wis.  Bui.  No.  62.) 


served  in  the  stables,  in  milking  and  in  the  milk  room. 
It  will  be  impossible  even  then  to  avoid  them  altogether, 
but  their  number  will  be  greatly  reduced.  Cooling  the 
milk  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  drawn  prevents  the 
bacteria  from  multiplying,  and  makes  it  possible  to  keep 
the  milk  sweet. 


DAIRYING 


199 


Kinds  of  Bacteria. —  There  are  many  bacteria  found 
in  milk.  Some  work  on  the  milk  sugar,  and  turn  it  to 
lactic  acid  and  thus  sour  the  milk.  Others  attack 
the  fat  in  milk  and  make  butter  rancid  or  strong.  Still 
others  give  to  butter  its  flavor.  These  are  called  friendly 
bacteria,  and  are  often  put  into  cream  to  give  the  butter 
just  the  flavor  desired.  By  cleanliness  and  care  in  cooling 
the  milk,  the  harmful  bacteria  may  be  held  in  check,  so 
that  the  friendly  bacteria  may  have  a  chance  to  grow. 


Progeny  of 
a  Single  Germ  © 
In  twelve  hours. 


Fig.  117.— Cooling  hinders  growth  of  bacteria.    (H.  L.  Russell,  Wis.  Bui.  No.  62.) 


Pasteurization. —It  has  been  found  possible  to  destroy 
all  disease  germs  and  the  bacteria  that  are  unfriendly  in 
milk  by  pasteurising  it.  In  this  process,  the  milk  is 
heated  to  a  temperature  of  about  i6o°  F.,  and  held  at  that 
point  for  about  fifteen  minutes ;  then  it  is  cooled  as  rapidly 
as  possible  to  a  temperature  of  50°  F.  This  destroys  the 
germs  but  does  not  otherwise  affect  the  milk.  Many 
machines  have  been  invented  for  doing  this  work,  but  it 
may  be  done  in  the  home  without  the  use  of  machinery. 


200 


DAIRYING 


The  Cream  Separator. — The  cream  separator  is  a  ma- 
chine for  separating  the  cream  from  the  milk.     It  does 

the  work  much  better 
and  much  more  quickly 
than  it  can  be  done  by 
allowing  the  cream  to 
rise  in  pans  or  in  cans. 

The  milk  is  turned 
into  a  bowl  which  is  ro- 
tated rapidly.  The  milk 
being  heavier  than  the 
cream,  is  thrown  by  the 
revolving  bowl  to  the 
outside,  and  passes  out 
through  a  spout,  while 
the  cream  seeks  the 
center  and  passes  out 
through  another  spout. 
The    separator    collects 

„_     „      ^  .  many    impurities    from 

Fig.  ii8. — Cream  separator.  ^  ^ 

the  milk  that  even  the 
best  strainers  fail  to  catch.  Separator  cream  is  therefore 
much  purer  than  other  cream. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Name  the  four  most  important  substances  in  milk. 
Give  the  percentage  of  each. 

2.  How  much  milk  does  a  good  cow  give  in  a  year? 

3.  How  should  milk  be  handled  to  keep  it  sweet? 


36.     DIRECTIONS    FOR    MAKING    THE    BABCOCK 

TEST. 

Illustrative  Material:  Sample  of  milk,  pipette,  test  bottles,  acid 
measure,  acid,  and  the  Babcock  tester;  sulphuric  acid  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  1.82. 

Sampling  the  Milk — Great  care  should  be  taken  to 
have  the  sample  of  milk  represent  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  whole  lot  from  which  it  was  taken.  Milk  fresh  from 
the  cow,  while  it  is  still  warm  and  before  the  cream  has 
separated  in  a  layer,  may  be  thoroughly  mixed  by  pouring 
it  three  or  four  times  from  one  vessel  to  another.  Sam- 
ples taken  at  once  from  milk  mixed  in  this  way  give  the 
best  results.  Milk  that  has  stood  until  a  layer  of  cream 
has  formed  should  be  poured  a  greater  number  of  times 
so  that  the  cream  shall  be  thoroughly  broken  up  and  the 
whole  appear  like  milk.  No  clots  of  cream  should  appear 
on  the  surface  when  the  milk  is  left  quiet  for  a  minute. 

Measuring  the  Milk — When  the  milk  has  been  well 
mixed,  the  milk  pipette  is  filled  by  placing  its  lower  end 
in  the  milk  and  sucking  at  the  upper  end  until  the  milk 
rises  above  the  mark  on  the  stem ;  then  remove  the  pipette 
from  the  mouth  and  quickly  close  the  tube  at  the  upper 
end  by  firmly  pressing  the  tip  of  the  index  finger  upon 
it  so  the  milk  cannot  flow  from  the  pipette.  Holding  the 
pipette  up  straight,  with  the  mark  on  a  level  with  the 
eye,  carefully  admit  air  slowly  to  the  space  above 
the  milk,  till  the  upper  surface  of  the  milk  falls  to 
the    mark    upon    the    stem.     Always    have    the    upper 


202        DIRECTIONS  FOR  MAKING  THE   BABCOCK  TEST 


^-^ 


\ 


/ 


C.C 


end  of  the  pipette  and  the  finger  dry  when  measuring 
milk,  as  it  is  almost  impossible  gradually  to  lower  the 
milk  if  the  finger  is  wet  Next, 
place  the  point  of  the  pipette  in 
the  mouth  of  one  of  the  test  bot- 
tles, held  in  a  slightly  slanting 
position  so  that  the  milk  can  flow 
down  the  side  of  the  tube,  and  re- 
move the  finger,  allowing  the 
milk  to  flow  into  the  bottle.  After 
waiting  a  short  time  for  the 
pipette  to  drain,  blow  into  the 
upper  end  to  expel  all  the  milk. 

Adding  the  Acid — When  the 
milk  has  been  measured  into  the 
test  bottles,  the  necessary  amount 
of  acid  may  be  added  immedi- 
ately or  the  bottles  may  be  left 
for  a  day  or  two  without  mate- 
rially changing  the  results. 

The  amount  of  acid  required 
for  a  test  is  about  the  same  as  that 
of  the  milk,  17.5  c.  c.  for  the 
ordinary  test.  If  too  little  acid  is 
added,  the  casein  is  not  all  held  in 
solution  throughout  the  test,  and 
an  imperfect  separation  of  the  fat 
results.  If  too  much  acid  is  used, 
the  fat  itself  is  attacked.     Great 

U  ^- ^    care  must  be  taken  in  handling  the 

acid  to  avoid  getting  any  of  it  on  the  skin  or  clothing. 


C:? 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  MAKING   THE   BABCOCK   TEST 


203 


The  acid  measure  is  filled  to  the  17.5  c.  c.  mark  with 
acid,  which  is  then  carefully  poured  into  a  test  bottle 
containing  milk.  The  bottle  should  be  held  in  a  slightly 
slanting  position  so  that  the  acid  may  flow  down  its 
side  and  not  come  in  contact  with  the  milk  too  suddenly 
and  thus  act  upon  it  unevenly.  The  acid  being  heavier 
than  the  milk,  sinks  directly  to  the  bottom  of  the  test  bot- 
tle without  mixing  with  the  milk,  which  floats  upon  it. 
The  acid  and  milk  should  now  be  thoroughly  mixed  by 
being  gently  shaken  with  a  rotary  motion.  The  mixture 
becomes  quite  hot  and  soon  changes  to  a  dark  brown  color. 

Whirling  the  Bottles. —  The  test  bottles  containing  the 
mixture  of  milk  and  acid  may  be  placed  in  the  machine 
directly  after  the  acid  is  added,  or  they  may  be  allowed 
to  stand  several  hours  without  harm.  An  even  number 
of  bottles  should  be  whirled  at  the  same  time,  and  they 
should  be  placed  in  the  wheel  in  pairs  opposite  each  other. 
When  all  the  test  bottles  have  been  placed  in  the  appara- 
tus, the  cover  should  be  placed  upon  the  jacket  and  the 
machine  turned  at  such  a  rate  that  the  wheel  carrying 
the  bottles  shall  make  from  700  to  1,200  revolutions  per 
minute.  This  motion  must  be  kept  up  for  six  or  seven 
minutes. 

Adding  Hot  Water. —  As  soon  as  the  bottles  have  been 
sufficiently  whirled,  pour  in  enough  hot  water  to  bring 
the  mixture  up  to  the  bottom  of  the  neck.  Put  the  bottles 
into  the  machine  and  whirl  them  again  for  about  three 
minutes.  Pour  in  enough  hot  water  to  bring  all  the  fat 
up  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  where  it  may  be  measured. 

Measuring  the  Fat. —  To  measure  the  fat,  take  a  bottle 
from  its  socket,  and,  holding  it  in  an  upright  position 


204        DIRECTIONS  FOR  MAKING   THE   BABCOCK  TEST 

with  the  scale  on  a  level  with  the  eye,  observe  the  divi- 
sions which  mark  the  highest  and  lowest  limits  of  the  fat. 
The  fat  should  be  read  from  the  extreme  top  of  the  curved 
upper  surface,  and  not  from  the  bottom  or  middle  of 
the  same.  The  difference  between  these  divisions  gives 
the  per  cent  of  fat  directly.  The  reading  can  easily  be 
taken  to  half  divisions  or  to  one  tenth  of  one  per  cent. 

Example —  If  the  figures  on  the  necks  of  the  bottles 
gave  the  per  cent  of  butter  fat,  for  example,  as  from  o 
to  3,  there  would  be  three  per  cent.  The  spaces  between 
the  figures  represent  one  per  cent,  and  each  space  between 
the  lines  represents  two  tenths  of  one  per  cent.  Thus,  if 
the  bottom  of  the  oil  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle  stood  at 
the  figure  2  and  the  top  of  the  third  fine  line  above  the 
figure  6,  there  would  be  four  and  six  tenths  per  cent 
(4.6  per  cent).  Each  per  cent  represents  one  pound  of 
butter  fat  in  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk. 

Amount  of  Butter. — Butter  itself  contains  several  sub- 
stances besides  butter  fat,  so  that  the  amount  of  butter 
shows  an  increase  of  from  ten  p6r  cent  to  eighteen  per 
cent.  Hence,  in  figuring  the  amount  of  butter  made,  this 
increase  should  be  added  to  the  amount  of  butter  fat  which 
is  shown  by  the  Babcock  test. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  If  the  test  reads  4.5,  how  many  pounds  of  butter  fat 
are  there  in  100  pounds  of  that  kind  of  milk? 

2.  One  cow  gives  50  pounds  of  milk  a  day,  which  tests 
3.6  per  cent  of  butter  fat.  Another  gives  35  pounds  of 
milk  a  day,  which  tests  5.8  per  cent.  Which  cow  is  the 
more  profitable  if  butter  fat  is  sold? 


Z%     PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING. 

Substances  in  Bodies  of  Animals The  bodies  of  ani- 
mals contain  flesh,  fat,  bones,  teeth,  hair,  etc. ;  or,  we  may- 
say  that  their  bodies  are  composed  of  water,  ash  (mineral 
matter),  protein,  and  fat.  These  are  the  substances  that 
must  be  supplied  in  the  food  that  the  animals  eat.  The 
body  is  more  than  half  water,  and  it  is  fortunate  that  ani- 
mals have  but  little  difficulty  in  getting  it.  Besides  the 
water  that  they  drink,  a  large  part  of  their  food  is  com- 
posed of  water.  The  ash,  or  mineral  matter,  is  found  in 
all  of  the  foods  that  animals  eat.  The  largest  part  of  it  is 
phosphate  of  lime.  Protein  is  the  name  given  to  the  most 
important  group  of  substances  to  be  supplied  by  the  food. 
It  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  flesh,  skin,  brain,  and 
nerves.  It  contains  nitrogen  as  its  most  important  ele- 
ment. Fat  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  is 
very  important  in  the  composition  of  milk. 

Substances  to  be  Studied — Little  attention  need  be 
given  to  supplying  water  or  ash  to  animals.  These  may 
be  obtained  ordinarily  in  large  quantities  without  cost. 
The  protein  and  the  fat-forming  foods,  however,  require 
considerable  attention.  They  are  the  expensive  part  of 
the  food  of  an  animal,  and  should  be  fed  with  care  so  that 
there  may  be  no  loss. 

Protein  and  Carbohydrates. —  These  are  two  words 
that  may  seem  difficult  to  understand  at  first,  but  they  are 
really  very  simple.     Use  the  words  whenever  possible, 

20S 


2o6  PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING 

and  they  will  not  seem  so  difficult.  Have  you  ever  made 
chewing  gum  by  chewing  the  grains  of  wheat?  This 
gum  was  made  almost  entirely  of  protein.  It  is  called 
gluten  in  the  wheat.  In  cheese,  it  is  called  casein.  In 
the  white  of  an  egg,  it  is  called  albumen.  Protein  is  found 
in  all  the  field  grains,  in  hay,  'in  clover,  in  peas,  and  in 
beans.  It  goes  to  form  the  flesh,  the  cartilage,  the  hair, 
the  wool,  and  the  casein  and  albumen  of  milk.  It  forms 
the  material  in  the  body  that  is  used  up  when  work  is 
performed.  Carbohydrates  are  principally  the  sugars  and 
the  starches.  Granulated  sugar  is  a  pure  crystallized  car- 
bohydrate. Potato  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  starch 
and  sugar.  The  potato  is  a  carbohydrate.  Nearly  all 
fruits  and  vegetables  are  carbohydrates.  The  grains  have 
some  starch  in  them,  and  that  part  of  them  is  carbohydrate. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  hay,  grass,  and  fodder.  The 
carbohydrates  are  chiefly  valuable  in  keeping  up  the  heat 
of  the  body  and  in  forming  fat. 

Office  of  Protein  and  Carbohydrates. —  Protein  and 
carbohydrates  may  be  likened  to  the  coal  that  is  put  into 
the  steam  engine  to  give  it  power  to  do  work.  When  the 
work  is  done,  the  substances  are  consumed  or  burned  up. 
It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  carbohydrates  are  much 
more  easily  consumed  in  the  body  than  the  proteins. 
When  the  body  has  work  to  do,  or  uses  up  fuel  in  keeping 
warm,  it  first  calls  on  the  carbohydrates  for  service.  The 
proteins  are  not  used  until  the  carbohydrates  are  largely 
consumed;  then  the  proteins  are  called  on.  If  more  car- 
bohydrates be  furnished  than  is  necessary  to  keep  the  body 
warm  and  to  furnish  the  energy  for  work,  the  body  stores 
it  up  in  the  shape  of  fat.     The  dairy  cow  secretes  it  in  the 


PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING  207 

udder ;  the  beef  cow  and  the  hog  lay  the  fat  on  over  the 
muscles. 

Fat. —  Some  foods,  such  as  cotton-seed  meal,  linseed 
meal,  nuts,  etc.,  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  oil  or 
.  fat.  This  is  used  by  the  animals  for  food  in  the  same  way 
and  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  carbohydrates.  It  is, 
however,  about  two  and  one-fourth  times  as  valuable  in 
producing  heat  as  the  same  quantity  of  carbohydrates. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Make  a  Hst  of  ten  animal  foods  valuable  chiefly  for 
protein. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  ten  foods  valuable  chiefly  as  carbo- 
hydrates. 

3.  Consult  the  Table  on  pages  257,  258  and  arrange  the 
foods  in  each  list  according  to  the  relative  amounts  of 
protein,  carbohydrate,  and  fat  in  each. 

Feeding  Standards. —  It  is  evident  from  the  lists  that 
you  have  made  that  the  most  expensive  foods  are  those 
valuable  chiefly  for  the  protein  which  they  contain.  The 
economical  farmer  will  feed  these  foods  as  sparingly  as 
possible  and  still  produce  the  results  he  desires.  It  has 
been  found  by  careful  testing  just  what  proportion  of 
protein  and  carbohydrates  it  is  best  to  feed  an  animal. 
For  instance,  it  has  been  found  that,  for  an  average  dairy 
cow,  about  six  times  as  much  carbohydrates  as  protein 
should  be  fed  for  the  best  results.  This  relation  is  usu- 
ally expressed  as  a  ratio,  as  i  to  6  or  i :  6,  and  is  called  the 
nutritive  ratio.  This  means  that,  for  every  pound  of 
protein,   six  pounds  of  carbohydrates  should  be  given. 


208  PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING 

Chemists  have  determined  the  amounts  of  protein  and 
carbohydrates  in  all  of  the  conmion  feeding  stuffs.  From 
tables  prepared  by  them,  we  may  "figure  out"  a  ration 
with  such  foods  as  may  be  raised  on  the  farm  or  pur- 
chased. It  is  sometimes  more  economical  to  sell  certain 
feed,  and  to  buy  other  feed  that  contains  the  elements 
needed  to  make  a  proper  ration. 

Balanced  Ration. — A  balanced  ration  is  one  that  con- 
tains protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  in  the  proportions 
that  will  secure  the  best  results.  Suppose  we  wished  to 
make  a  balanced  ration  for  an  average  dairy  cow.  We  find 
from  the  Table,  Amount  of  Nutrients,  pp.  259,  260,  that 
such  a  cow  needs  daily  about  twenty-seven  pounds  of  dry 
matter.  She  needs  two  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  eleven 
pounds  of  carbohydrates,  and  four-tenths  of  a  pound  of  fat. 
If  we  multiply  the  fat  required  by  two  and  one-fourth,  it 
will  be  equivalent  to  about  one  pound  of  carbohydrates. 
The  nutritive  ratio,  given  in  the  Table,  Amount  of  Nu- 
trients, is  1:6.  Suppose  we  have  clover  hay,  corn  stover, 
bran,  corn  meal,  and  cotton-seed  meal,  to  feed. 

Dry  Digestible      Digestible 

matter.  protein,     carbohydrates. 

Clover  hay,  15  lbs 12.7  1.02  5.9 

Corn  stover,  7.5  lbs 4.5  .13  2.5 

Bran,  2.5  lbs 2.2  .30  1.2 

Corn  meal,  3  lbs 2.7  .23  2.3 

Cotton-seed  meal,  1  lb .9  .38  .4 

Result 23.0  2.06  12.3 

Standard 27.0  2.00  12.0 

Nutritive  ratio,  1  :  6. 

It  must  not  be  expected  that  a  ration  will  figure  out 
exactly  according  to  the  needs.    The  above  ration  is  close 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING  209 

enough  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  ''dry  matter" 
is  about  four  pounds  short  of  the  requirement,  but  that 
is  not  important.  The  figuring  out  of  a  ration  for  any 
animal  is  somewhat  a  matter  of  guessing. 

Suppose  we  wish  to  figure  out  a  ration  for  a  horse 
at  light  work  and  weighing  one  thousand  pounds.  We 
have  on  hand  mixed  hay,  oats,  and  bran.  How  much  of 
each  may  we  feed,  and  make  a  balanced  ration?  Let  us 
look  first  on  page  259  of  the  Appendix,  and  we  see  that  a 
horse  weighing  about  1,000  pounds,  at  light  work,  re- 
quires daily  20  pounds  of  digestible  dry  matter,  1.5 
pounds  of  protein,  and  10.4  pounds  of  carbohydrates  (.4 
lbs.  X  2%  +  9.5  lbs.),  making  a  ratio  of  1:7.  That  is, 
seven  times  as  many  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  fats  as 
protein  should  be  fed.  This  we  might  call  a  medium 
ratio.  ^ 

Now  let  us  make  a  guess  of  a  ration  for  our  work  horse. 
Let  us  take  fifteen  pounds  of  mixed  hay  (equal  parts  of 
timothy  and  red  clover)  and  five  pounds  of  oats,  and  see 
how  close  our  result  comes  to  the  standard.  From  the 
Table  on  pages  257,  258,  we  find  our  ration  figures  out  as 
follows: 

Digestible 

dry  matter. 

15  lbs.  Mixed  hay 12.9 

5  lbs.  Oats 4.5 

Result 17.4 

Standard 20.0 

Lacks  2.6  Lacks   .34  Lacks  1.0 

*  The  terms  "medium"  ratio,  "wide"  ratio  and  "narrow"  ratio  are  used  to 
indicate  the  relative  amount  of  carbohydrates  compared  with  the  protein  elements. 
A  "wide"  ratio  means  more  of  the  carbohydrates  as  compared  with  the  proteins, 
G.  &  M.  Ag.  14 


Digestible 
protein. 

.72 
.44 

Digestible 
carbohydrates. 

6.5 
2.9 

1.16 
1.50 

9.4 
10.4 

2IO  PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING 


The  ration  so  far  is  lacking  in  food  at  every  point.  We 
must  select  foods  for  the  remainder  of  the  ration  that 
have  a  narrow  ratio.  Let  us  add  three  pounds  of  bran. 
This  will  produce  the  following  result: 


Dry  matter. 

Protein. 

Carbohydrates. 

Previously  obtained 

17.4 

1.16 

9.4 

3  lbs.  Bran 

2.6 

.36 

1.4 

Result 

20.0 

1.52 

10.8 

Standard 

20.0 

1.50 

10.4 

Excess   .02 

Excess   .4 

Comparing  our  result  with  the  standard,  we  find  that 
the  weight  of  dry  matter  is  equal  to  the  requirement.  It 
has  an  excess  of  .02  lb.  of  the  amount  required  for  protein. 
The  amount  of  carbohydrates  is  close  enough  to  the  stand- 
ard for  all  practical  purposes.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
ration  be  brought  exactly  to  the  standard;  but,  in  the 
amounts  of  protein  and  carbohydrates,  it  should  not 
vary  much  from  it.  If  the  amount  of  dry  matter  vary 
two  or  three  pounds  either  way,  it  will  make  but  little 
difiference. 

Cost  and  Feeding. — The  wise  farmer  will  figure  the 
cost  of  the  different  food  stuffs  very  carefully  to  find  out 
what  is  the  most  profitable  to  feed.  It  is  often  best  to 
sell  some  of  the  foods  having  a  wide  ratio,  such  as  hay 
and  potatoes,  and  to  purchase  foods  having  a  narrow  ra- 
tio, such  as  cotton-seed  or  linseed  meal. 

than  the  "medium"  ratio;  a  "narrow"  ratio  means  less  of  the  carbohydrates. 
For  a  dairy  cow,  the  ratio  of  i  :  6  might  be  considered  a  medium  ratio;  i  :  4,  a 
narrow  ratio;  and  i  :  12,  a  wirle  ratio. 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING  211 

Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs. — On  account  of 
the  value  of  certain  foods  as  manure,  it  is  also  necessary 
to  figure  on  the  manurial  value  of  a  food  as  well  as  on  its 
feeding  value.  From  the  Table  on  page  261,  it  may  be 
seen  that  some  substances  are  of  far  greater  value  as 
manure  than  others,  and  this  fact  should  be  considered 
in  making  a  profitable  ration,  and  in  determining  what 
foods  to  sell  and  what  to  purchase. 

PROBLEMS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Make  a  ration  for  a  milch  cow  of  about  1,000  pounds 
weight,  using  silage,  alfalfa,  and  wheat  bran. 

2.  Suppose  a  farmer  has  ground  oats,  corn  meal,  red 
clover  hay,  and  stover  (cornstalks)  on  his  farm.  Could 
a  balanced  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  be  made  from  these 
alone?  Select  additional  foods  from  the  table  to  make 
a  balanced  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  (1,000  lbs.). 

3.  Make  a  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  (1,000  lbs.),  having 
the  usual  ratio  of  1:6,  of  red  clover  hay,  mangels,  corn 
meal,  oats,  wheat  bran,  and  gluten  meal. 

4.  A  farmer  fed  his  cows,  averaging  about  1,000 
pounds  each,  10  pounds  timothy  hay,  13  pounds  stover, 
and  6  pounds  straw.  His  cows  averaged  but  156  pounds 
of  butter  each  year.  Why  does  he  get  such  poor  results? 
Suggest  changes  in  the  feed  that  would  be  likely  to  in- 
crease the  amount  of  butter  produced. 

5.  A  farmer  feeds  a  1,000-pound  steer  in  the  second 
period  of  fattening  the  following  ration:  40  pounds  of  corn 
silage,  10  pounds  of  red  clover  hay,  4  pounds  of  corn  and 
cob  meal,  3  pounds  of  oats  and  6  pounds  of  gluten  meal. 


212  PRINCIPLES   OF    FEEDING 

Calculate  the  nutritive  ratio.    How  does  it  compare  with 
the  standard  ration?    (See  page  259.) 

6.  A  herd  of  Shorthorns,  weighing  an  average  of  i,3c»o 
pounds,  was  fed  daily  as  follows: 

Mixed  hay 10  lbs. 

Stover 5  lbs. 

Straw 5  lbs. 

Mangels 15  lbs. 

Corn  meal 2  lbs. 

Wheat  bran 2  lbs. 

What  is   the  nutritive  ratio   of  this  ration?     Suggest 
changes  that  would  produce  better  results. 


38.     HORSES. 

Breeds. —  The  different  breeds  of  horses  may  be  classed 
as  follows : 

1.  Those  valuable  for  speed, 

2.  Those  valuable  for  drawing  loads. 

3.  Those  valuable  as  coach  horses. 

4.  Ponies. 


Fig.   122. —  One   of   General   Grant's   Arabians. 

Horses  Valuable  for  Speed —  The  Arabian  horse  was 
probably  the  origin  of  horses  noted  for  speed.  At  pres- 
ent,  it  is  not  so  speedy  as  many  of  the  breeds  which 

213 


214 


HORSES 


have  sprung  from  it.  After  General  Grant  made  his  trip 
around  the  world,  he  was  presented  with  a  fine  team  of 
Arabians.  A  picture  of  one  of  them  is  given  (Figure  122). 
The  Thoroughbred  horse  is  an  animal  of  great  endur- 
ance and  great  speed.  The  Thoroughbreds  are  running 
horses  and  are  bred  chiefly  for  racing.     The  breed  was 


Fig.    123. —  Dan   Patch,    1:56^. 

established  in  England  by  a  mixture  of  native  stock  with 
Arabian. 

The  American  trotting  horses  do  not  yet  make  a  dis- 
tinct breed,  but  they  are  better  known  than  many  of  the 
distinct  breeds.     The  most  important  families  of  this  class 


HORSES 


215 


are  Hambletonians,  Mambrinos,  and  Clays.  The  Mor- 
gans, also,  belong  to  this  class,  and  are  probably  the  most 
popular  for  general  purposes. 

Horses  Valuable  for  Drawing  Loads   (Draft) The 

draft  horses  differ  chiefly  from  the  horses  valued  for  speed 


Fig.    12A. —  Percheron  stallion. 


in  being  much  heavier  and  larger.  The  back  is  broader 
and  the  legs  are  shorter.  The  chief  breeds  are  here  illus- 
trated. 

The  Percheron  was  developed  in  France.     When  the 


2l6 


HORSES 


breed  was  first  established  most  of  the  horses  were  dap- 
pled gray,  but  the  largest  number  are  now  black  or  dark 
brown.  The  Percherons  are  good  farm  horses.  They 
are  gentle,  active,  and  strong.  The  French  Draft  horse 
is  similar  to  the  Percheron. 


Fig.    I2S. —  Clydesdale  stallion. 

The  English  Shire  horse  is  low,  broad,  and  stout.  It 
is  not  a  very  active  breed  and  is  adapted  to  drawing  heavy 
loads  with  slow  motion. 

The  Clydesdale,  a  native  of  Scotland,  is  a  well  muscled, 
well  proportioned  horse.  Fine  Iqng  hair  grows  from  the 
edge  of  the  lower  legs.  The  Clydesdale  has  a  rapid  walk 
and  is  a  very  useful  and  popular  farm  horse. 


HORSES  217 

Coach  Horses. —  These  horses  are  in  size  and  form  be- 
tween the  speed  horses  and  the  draft  horses,  having  some 
of  the  quaHties  of  each.  The  chief  breeds  are  the  French 
Coach,  the  Cleveland  Bay,  the  German  Coach  and  the 
Hackney  horse. 

Ponies —  These  horses  are  much  smaller  than  other 
breeds. 


Fig.    126. —  Coach    horses. 

The  Shetland  ponies,  originating  in  the  Shetland 
Islands,  near  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  are  bred  for 
their  small  size.  They  are  especially  adapted  for  chil- 
dren's use. 

The  Indian  ponies,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  Mustangs,  in  the  southern  part,  originated 
from  the  horses  brought  to  this  country  by  the  early  ex- 
plorers from  Spain  and  France.  Both  the  Indian  Pony 
and  the  Mustang  are  valuable  as  saddle  animals. 


2l8 


HORSES 


Care  of  Horses. —  The  horse  is  a  noble  animal,  of  fine 
spirit  and  sensibilities,   and  requires  careful  treatment. 
_.,^-." '^---.  ■  __  Kind  treatment  and  gen- 

tle handling  will  give 
the  horse  a  good  dispo- 
sition, and  will  save 
money  in  feed  besides. 
It  will  pay  to  figure  out 
a  good  ration  for  the 
horse  from  the  tables 
given  in  the  Appendix. 
A  well-balanced  ration 
will  keep  a  horse  in  good 
''■-'?^  _       condition  without  over- 

' '  ^^^:  :  _  . .  -   -  -   --~  feeding.     Young  people 

Fig.  127.—  Shetland  pony.  ^yho  havc  read  ""  Black 

Beauty  "  will  sympathize  with  the  horse,  and  will  give 
him  the  best  of  treatment. 

SOME  HORSE  SENSE. 

(From   Biggie  Book.) 

Be  gentle,  be  kind,  be  patient. 

The  brush  will  save  oats. 

If  you  must  put  frosty  bits  in  .some  mouth,  let  it  be 
your  own.     Suffering  begets  sympathy. 

Many  a  horse  stands  up  all  night  because  his  stall  is 
not  made  so  that  he  can  lie  down  in  comfort. 

You  can  not  whip  terror  out  of  a  horse,  or  pound  cour- 
age into  one.  If  he  shies  or  becomes  frightened,  soothe 
and  encourage  him  rather  than  beat  and  abuse  him. 

A  horse  can  travel  safer  and  better  if  he  is  not  checked 
too  high.     Let  your  working  horse  have  his  head. 


39.     SHEEP. 


Breeds  of  Sheep. —  Sheep  are  raised  for  their  mutton 
and  for  their  wool.  The  breeds  are  often  classified  ac- 
cording to  the  fineness  of  their  wool.  The  fine-wooled 
sheep  are  the  Merino,  the  Delaine,  and  the  Rambouillet. 
The   medium-wooled   breeds   are   the   Southdown,    the 


Fig.    128. —  American  Merino  ram,  four  years  old. 

Shropshire,  the  Dorset,  the  Hampshire,  the  Oxford,  and 
the  Cheviot.  The  long-wooled  sheep  are  the  Leicester, 
the  Cotswold,  and  the  Lincoln. 

Fine-wooled  Sheep —  The  Merino  is  a  native  of  Spain, 
and  is  distinguished  by  the  large  wrinkles  on  its  neck  and 
body,  and  its  fine,  oily  wool.     The  wool  of  this  sheep  is 

219 


220 


SHEEP 


Fig   139. —  Cheviot  ram. 


finer  than  that  of  any  other  breed.     The  Merino  is  raised 
chiefly  for  its  wool,  though  some  famiHes  produce  very 


Fig.   130. —  Southdown  ram. 


SHEEP 


221 


good  mutton.  Large  numbers  of  Merinos  are  raised  in 
the  southwestern  states  of  our  country.  They  are  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  warm  climates. 

The  Delaine  is  de- 
scended from  the 
Merino.  It  is  larger 
and  stronger  than 
the  Merino,  and  is 
freer  from  wrink- 
les. This  breed  is 
coming  in  favor  for 
its  mutton. 

The  Ramhouillet, 
or  French  Merinos, 
are  the  largest  of  the 
Merinos  and  have  a 
mutton  form.  The  t 
fleece  is  not  so  heavy 
in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  sheep  as 

the     Merinos.  ^^^'    *^'" —  Shropshire   yearling. 

The  Cheviot  is  a  native  of  the  hills  between  England 
and  Scotland.  It  is  a  hardy -breed  and  produces  a  wool 
adapted  to  make  the  cheviot  cloth.  The  entire  head  and 
the  legs  are  pure  white. 

The  Medium-wooled  Breeds — The  Soiithdoznm,  the 
smallest  of  the  medium-wooled  breeds,  is  an  English 
sheep.  It  is  hornless,  its  head  iand  legs  being  of  a  gray- 
brown  color.  The  wool  is  of  medium  fineness,  but  the 
sheep  is  valuable  chiefly  for  its  production  of  mutton. 

The  Shropshire  sheep  takes  its  name  from  the  county  of 


222 


SHEEP 


Fig.    132. —  Hampshire  down    ram. 


the  same  name  in  England,  where  it  was  first  Brought  to 
notice.     It  resembles  the  Southdown  in  appearance.     It 


FiOi.    133. —  Oxford-down  ram. 


SHEEP 


223 


is  especially  adapted  for  the  lowlands,  thus  being  prob- 
ably the  best  all-purpose  sheep  for  the  central  part  of 
the  United  States. 

The  Dorset  is  valuable  chiefly  in  producing  winter 
lambs.  Both  the  rams  and  the  ewes  have  horns.  They 
are  considerably  larger  than  the  Southdowns.  The  head 
and  legs  are  white. 

The  Horned  Dorset  is  an  English  breed.     Its  nose, 


Fig.    134. —  Lincoln    ram. 

hoofs  and  legs  are  white,  and  it  has  a  tuft  of  wool  on  its 
forehead.  The  Horned  Dorsets  are  not  so  important  or 
so  widely  distributed  as  the  Merinos. 

The  Hampshire  is  similar  to  the  Shropshire,  but  is 
larger  and  coarser. 

The  Oxford  is  the  largest  of  this  class  of  sheep. 
Neither  the  Hampshire  nor  the  Oxford  sheep  are  widely 
distributed  in  the  United  States. 

The  Long-wooled  Breeds — The  Leicester,  Cotswold, 


224  SHEEP 

and  Lincoln  are  English  sheep  bred  chiefly  for  their  long 
wool.  They  are  of  large  size  and  require  rich  pasturage. 
They  are  not  popular  breeds  in  the  United  States. 

Advantage  of  Sheep  Production. —  Rough  and  scanty 
pasturage  that  would  be  too  poor  for  other  farm  animals, 
may  often  be  used  to  raise  sheep.  As  a  result,  also,  the 
fertility  of  the  land  is  greatly  increased,  and  weeds  are 
kept  down.  The  profits  from  sheep  raising  under  favor- 
able conditions  are  greater  than  those  from  raising  stock 
of  any  other  kind. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  How  are  sheep  classified? 

2.  What  breed  of  sheep  has  the  finest  wool? 

3.  What  are  the  long-wooled  breeds  of  sheep? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  sheep  raising? 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  breeds  of  sheep  raised  in  your  neigh- 
borhood. 


40.      SWINE. 

Breeds  of  Swine. —  The  different  breeds  of  swine  are 
divided  into  classes  according  to  size.  The  most  impor- 
tant breeds  of  hogs  are  the  Berkshire,  the  Poland-China, 
the  Diiroc  Jersey,  the  Tamworth,  the  Large  Yorkshire, 
and  the  Chester  White. 


<-  %- 


bi\i.    ijs. —  Texas   razor   back   liog. 


The  Berkshires. —  The  Berkshires  are  black,  with  white 
markings  on  the  head,  feet,  and  sometimes  on  the  front 
legs.     The  head  is  thick  and  short  and  the  face  is  dished. 

The  Poland-Chinas. —  This  breed  is  black,  with  white 
markings  on  the  head  and  feet.  The  head  is  short  and 
thick,  with  slightly  dished  face  and  small,  drooping  ears. 

The  Duroc  Jerseys. —  These  swine  are  red  or  light 
brown.     They   have   short  heads,    with    slightly   dished 


G.  &  M.  Ag  IS. 


225 


226 


SWINE 


faces,   and   drooping   ears.     The  body  is   compact  and 
plump  and  resembles  that  of  the  Poland-Chinas. 


Fig.    136. —  Berkshire  hog. 


The  Large  Yorkshires. —  This  breed  is  white.  They 
have  long,  narrow  bodies,  medium  length  heads,  erect 
ears,  and  much  dished  faces. 


'^ej^mu 


Fig.    137. —  Poland  China    hog. 


SWINE 


227 


The  Tamworths —  These  hogs  are  red  or  brown  in 
color,  Hke  the  Duroc  Jerseys,  but  they  have  longer  legs 


Fig.    138. —  Duroc  Jersey  hog.. 

and  slimmer  bodies  than  that  breed.     The  nose  is  long 
and  straight,  and  the  ears  are  erect. 


Fig.    139. —  Tamworth   hog. 

The  Chester  Whites. —  As  the  name  indicates,  these 
hogs  are  white.  The  head  is  short  and  slightly  dished. 
The  ears  are  drooping  and  the  body  is  large  and  compact. 


228  SWINE 

The  Advantage  of  Swine  Raising —  A  pound  of  swine 
flesh  can  be  produced  more  cheaply  than  a  pound  of  flesh 
in  any  other  farm  animal.  The  hog  is  built  so  compactly 
that  there  is  very  little  waste  in  slaughtering,  and  it  will 
eat  many  kinds  of  food  that  could  not  be  disposed  of 
otherwise.     If  hogs  are  kept  in  clean  quarters  and  are  fed 


Fig.   140. —  Chester  White  hog. 


properly,  they  are  not  likely  to  become  diseased.     Under 
such  conditions,  hog  raising  is  a  profitable  industry. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  Make  a  ration,  consisting  of  skim  milk  and  corn,  for 
a  pig  weighing  fifty  to  one  hundred  pounds. 

2.  A  hog  weighing  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  is 
to  be  fattened  with  com  and  middlings.  Make  a  ration 
adapted  for  this  purpose. 

3.  Why  is  hog  raising  a  profitable  industry? 

4.  What  breeds  of  hogs  are  black?    Red?    White? 


41.     POULTRY    (PI.  II.,  III.,  IV.). 

The  Profit  of  Poultry  Raising. —  The  importance  of  the 
poultry  business  has  not  been  appreciated  by  the  farmers. 
The  vahie  of  tlie  poultry  and  eggs  produced  in  the  United 
States  in  one  year  amounts  to  about  one-half  billion 
dollars.  If  proper  attention  were  given  to  this  industry 
on  the  farm,  a  much  larger  profit  might  be  secured.  A 
small  flock  of  not  to  exceed  fifty  hens,  with  careful  atten- 
tion, will  add  a  considerable  amount  to  the  farmer's  in- 
come. It  often  happens  that  those  who  are  unable  to  do 
heavy  work  on  the  farm  may  employ  their  time  with 
profit  in  caring  for  poultry. 

Breeds  of  Chickens. —  It  pays  to  keep  nothing  but  pure 
bred  fowls  on  the  farm.  The  common  or  mongrel  stock 
will  eat  just  as  much  and  will  require  just  as  much  care 
as  the  pure  bred  stock,  and,  as  a  rule,  they  do  not  pro- 
duce so  well. 

Chickens  may  be  raised  chiefly  for  the  eggs  which  they 
lay.  They  are  then  called  "  tgg  breeds."  They  may 
be  raised  for  their  flesh.  These  are  called  "  meat  breeds." 
Both  of  these  objects  may  be  served,  and  the  fowl  belong 
to  the  "  general  purpose  "  breeds. 

Egg  Breeds. —  The  best  known  egg  breeds  are  the  Leg- 
horn, the  Minorca,  and  the  Houdan. 

The  Leghorns  may  be  brown,  white,  black  or  buflf. 
They  are  rather  small,  nervous  fowls,  with  large  red 
combs  and  wattles.     They  are  great  layers,  but  they  do 

229 


230  POULTRY 

not  sit.  The  Leghorns  should  not  be  kept  in  close  con- 
finement, but  should  be  allowed  a  large  range. 

The  Minorcas  are  either  black  or  white.  They,  also, 
have  large  combs.  Under  proper  conditions,  they  are 
extra  good  layers.  The  flesh  is  not  regarded  as  the  best 
for  table  use. 

The  Hondans  are  beautiful  fowls.  They  have  a  top- 
knot of  feathers  on  the  head  and  V-shaped  combs.  They 
have  five  toes  on  each  foot  instead  of  four,  the  usual 
number.  They  are  good  layers  and  non-sitters.  Were 
it  not  for  the  fact  that  they  are  rather  delicate,  and  that 
the  topknots  on  the  head  prevent  their  seeing  danger 
easily,  they  would  be  one  of  the  most  popular  breeds. 

Meat  Breeds. —  The  Brahmas  are  the  most  important 
of  the  meat  breeds.  The  Light  Brahmas  are  the  largest 
variety  of  fowl.  They  lay  large  brown  eggs,  and  are 
good  sitters.  They  bear  confinement  well,  and  are  quiet 
in  disposition.  The  legs  and  toes  are  heavily  feathered. 
The  Dark  Brahmas  are  similar  to  the  Light  Brahmas, 
but  are  about  one  jxDund  lighter  in  weight. 

The  Cochins,  of  which  there  are  four  breeds, —  the 
Partridge,  Buff,  Black,  and  White, —  are  the  hardiest 
of  all  the  breeds. .  The  feathers  are  heavy  and  extend 
down  over  the  toes.  The  Cochins  are  good  sitters  and 
fair  layers. 

The  Cornish  Indian  Games  are  a  distinct  meat  breed. 
The  meat  on  the  breast  is  plentiful  and  delicious.  They 
are  poor  layers,  but  good  sitters. 

The  General  Purpose  Breeds —  The  Plymouth  Rocks 
are  the  most  popular  class  of  fowls  in  America.  There 
are  three  breeds :  the  Barred,  the  White,  and  the  Buff. 


POULTRY 


231 


They  are  hardy,  beautiful,  good  layers,  and  fairly  good 
sitters.     The  meat  is  good  for  table  use. 

The  Wyandottcs  are  close  to  the  Plymouth  Rocks  in 
popularity.  Many  think  them  the  better  fowl  for  gen- 
eral purposes.  They  have  compact  bodies,  are  fairly 
good  sitters  and  are  splendid  layers.  They  lay  dark 
eggs  and  are  good  table  fowls. 

Care  of  Fowls —  Choose  a  place  for  the  poultry  house 
that  shall  have  good  drainage.  A  southern  or  south- 
eastern slope  is  best,  so  that  the  fowls  may  have  plenty 
of  sunshine,  and  be  protected  from  the  northwest  wind. 


Fig.  141. —  A  good  hen-house  with  shed. 

Build  a  snug,  comfortable  house  for  the  chickens  to  live 
in  at  night.  Houses  that  are  comfortable  save  much 
grain,  and  encourage  hens  to  lay  in  winter.  Attached 
to  the  hen-house  should  be  a  larger,  more  open  scratch- 
ing shed.  Make  this  large  enough  to  furnish  about  four 
square  feet  of  scratching  surface  for  each  hen.  The 
scratching  shed  should  open  toward  the  south,  so  that  the 
fowls  may  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  sunshine.  In  a 
sunny  corner  of  the  shed,  a  box,  fiUed  with  fine  dust 
scraped  from  the  road  in  the  summer  time,  should  be 
placed.     Chickens  delight  in  the  dust  bath,  and  it  helps 


232 


POULTRY 


Fig. 


142. —  Homemade   drinking 
fountain. 


to  free  them  from  lice.  The  floor  of  the  shed  should  be 
covered  with  chopped  straw  or  chaff.  The  grain  may 
be  thrown  in  this  to  give  the  poultry  proper  exercise  in 
scratching  and  picking  it  out. 

Feeding — As  much  care  should  be  exercised  in  feed- 
ing chickens  as  in  feeding  a  dairy  cow.     The  balanced 

ration  will  give  the  best  results. 
If  the  chickens  are  allowed  to 
range  over  the  farm,  they  will 
usually  supply  themselves  with 
food  that  has  the  proper  pro- 
portion of  egg-forming  and  of 
fat-forming  material.  They 
will  pick  up  grain,  seeds,  in- 
sects, and  green  blades  of  grass.  When  they  are  kept  in 
a  yard,  these  varieties  of  food  should  be  supplied  in  proper 
proportions. 

Chickens  need  plenty  of  pure  water.  This  should  be 
supplied  in  dishes  that  are  cleaned  regularly.  A  lard 
pail  or  other  can  may  be  filled  with  water  and  turned  over 
suddenly  in  a  shallow  pan  or  in  a  flower-pot  saucer.  A 
little  niche  or  hole  near  the  edge  of  the  pail  or  can  will 
allow  the  water  to  flow  into  the  pan  or  saucer  as  it  is 
needed. 

Poultry  should  have  some  green  food,  vegetables  or 
cut  grass,  grain  of.  some  kind,  preferably  corn,  and  meat. 
It  is  necessary  that  meat  be  fed  to  the  hens  in  the  winter 
time,  if  they  are  expected  to  lay.  The  meat  furnishes  the 
albumen  for  the  eggs.  Beets  or  cabbage  heads  may  be 
hung  just  out  of  reach  of  the  poultry,  so  they  must  jump 
up  to  peck  at  them.     This  will  furnish  the  green  food 


POULTRY 


233 


necessary  in  the  winter,  as  well  as  giving  the  poultry 
needed  exercise.  Cracked  oyster  shells,  crushed  glass  or 
other  forms  of  grit,  should  be  placed  where  the  chickens 
can  get  all  they  want.  This  helps  in  the  digestion  of 
other  food,  and  forms  the  bones  of  the  poultry  and  the 
shells  of  the  eggs. 

Parasites —  Poultry  are  often  afflicted  with  lice  and 
with  mites.  The  lice  breed  on  the  chickens,  and  live 
upon  them.  The  mites  live  in  the  cracks  in  the  roosts, 
in  the  nests,  and  in  the  walls.  They  come  out  in  the 
night  time  and  suck  the  blood  of  the  fowls.  To  destroy 
the  lice,  sprinkle  the  chickens  with  insect  powder  fre- 
quently. To  destroy  the  mites,  the  poultry  house  should 
be  kept  thoroughly  clean.  The  entire  inside  of  the  house, 
including  roosts  and  boxes,  should  be  washed  with  coal 
oil  every  other  week.  Roosts,  boxes,  and  platforms 
should  be  made  movable,  so  that  they  may  be  taken  out 
for  thorough  cleaning. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  How  may  larger  profits  from  the  poultry  business  on 
the  farm  be  secured? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  various  breeds  of  poultry  raised  in 
your  neighborhood. 

3.  Why  do  chickens  need  grit? 

4.  What  is  the  value  of  the  dust  bath? 

5.  Why  should  all  the  fixtures  in  a  poultry  house  be 
made  movable? 


42.     DUCKS    AND    TURKEYS     (PI.  IV.). 

DUCKS. 

Ducks  are  easily  raised  on  the  farm.     They  eat  much 
food  that  other  animals  will  not  touch.     They  can  be 


Fig.    143. —  Pekin  ducks. 

raised  just  as  well  where  there  is  no  swimming  pond, 
though  they  get  much  food  from  the  pond  if  they  have 
the  chance. 

Ducks  are  hatched  best  under  a  hen.  She  is  also  the 
best  mother  for  them.  Ducklings  should  not  be  allowed 
to  go  into  the  water  for  the  first  ten  days, 

234 


DUCKS    AND   TURKEYS  235 

Breeds  of  Ducks. —  The  Pekin  duck  is  the  best  duck 
for  profit.  It  is  easily  kept,  is  a  good  layer,  and  brings 
the  highest  price  in  the  market.  Its  white  feathers  may 
be  sold  for  a  good  price. 

The  Rouen  duck  is  beautifully  colored,  and  is  prob- 
ably descended  directly  from  the  wild  duck, —  the 
Mallard. 

The  Cayuga  is  jet  black  in  plumage,  and  originated  in 
New  York. 

The  Aylesbury  is  the  favorite  English  variety.  It  is 
pure  dead  white. 

TURKEYS. 

Wild  turkeys  were  quite  plentiful  in  America  before 
it  was  well  settled.  The  turkey  on  our  farms  was  derived 
from  the  wild  turkey. 

The  meat  of  the  turkey  is  more  desired  than  that  of 
any  other  fowl,  and  it  brings  the  highest  price  in  the 
market. 

The  turkey  is  of  a  roving  disposition,  and  does  not  do 
well  when  kept  in  a  small  enclosure.  It  is  best  not  to 
attempt  to  keep  turkeys  in  a  poultry  house.  They  thrive 
better  when  allowed  to  roost  outdoors. 

The  turkey  hen  seeks  an  out-of-the-way  place  to  lay 
her  eggs.  She  goes  far  from  the  house  to  make  her  nest 
and  to  rear  her  young.  Sometimes  turkeys  go  a  half  a 
mile  or  more  and  make  their  nests  in  a  fence  corner  or 
in  a  brush  heap.  They  may  be  enticed  to  nest  nearer 
home  by  setting  a  few  boards  or  an  old  door  against  a 
fence  corner,  and  throwing  a  bunch  of  hay  under  it,  or 
by  placing  barrels  and  boxes  with  hay  in  them  on  the 


236  DUCKS    AND    TURKEYS 

ground  in  some  secluded  spot.  The  young  turkeys,  or 
poults,  as  they  are  called,  are  very  delicate,  and,  until 
they  are  ten  or  twelve  weeks  old,  they  should  be  cared  for 
in  coops.  They  should  not  be  let  out  of  the  coop  in  the 
morning  until  the  dew  is  off  the  grass. 

The  Bronze  Turkey. —  This  is  the  largest,  the  most 
popular,  and  the  most  profitable  of  all  the  breeds.  The 
gobblers  weigh  about  thirty-six  pounds,  and  the  turkey 
hens  about  twenty  pounds.  This  breed  furnishes  the 
largest  part  of  the  turkey  meat  for  Thanksgiving  and 
Christmas  feasts. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  What  breeds  of  ducks  are  raised  in  your  neighborhood? 

2.  Observe  ducks  when  they  are  foraging  for  food. 
What  do  they  eat? 

3.  How  should  young  turkeys  be  cared  for? 

4.  Observe  turkeys  when  they  are  catching  things  to 
eat.    What  insects  do  they  eat  in  large  numbers? 


43.    BEE-KEEPING. 

Bees  and  Flowers. —  Every  country  boy  or  girl  knows 
that  nectar  is  gathered  by  bees.  These  little  workers  fly 
about  from  flower  to  flower,  collect  the  nectar  drop  by 
drop,  with  wonderful  industry  and  patience,  and  carry  it 
home,  where,  after  freeing  it  of  much  of  the  water  which 
it  contains,  and  adding  a  preservative  acid,  they  store  it 
away  in  regular  tiers  of  waxen  cells.  Then  when  the 
weather  is  so  cold  that  they  can  not  leave  the  home,  they 
have  food  on  which  to  live.     Bees  do  not  injure  the 


Worker.  Queen.  Drone. 

Fig.     144. — Honey     bees. 

flowers  which  they  visit.  On  the  contrary,  they  help 
them  to  bear  more  seed  and  fruit.  Our  orchards  and 
berry  fields  yield  more  and  better  fruit  because  of  the  bees. 
Social  Life  of  the  Bees. —  Wild  bees  live  in  hollow 
trees,  or  sometimes  in  crevices  in  rocks;  but  the  honey 
of  the  market  is  gathered  by  tame  bees, —  that  is,  by  bees 
that  are  kept  on  the  farm.  Bees  live  in  large  families  or 
colonies,  each  of  which  has  its  queen.  Each  colony,  or, 
as  it  is  frequently  called,  "  swarm,"  lives  in  its  own 
house  or  "  hive,"  and  the  bees  of  one  hive  are  not  wel- 

237 


238  BEE-KEEPING 

come  in  another.  Each  worker  bee  is  armed  with  a  sting, 
with  which  to  protect  its  home,  but  the  skilful  bee-keeper 
learns  to  control  his  bees  so  that  they  do  not  often  use 
their  stings. 

The  Workers,  the  Queen,  and  the  Drone —  The 
worker  bee  is  the  smallest  bee  in  the  hive.  It  takes  the 
little  scales  of  wax  that  form  between  the  rings  on 
the  abdomen  and  makes  the  comb.  The  oil  which  is 
made  from  the  food  eaten  by  the  bee  finds  its  way  through 
the  bee's  body  and  hardens  into  waxy  scales.  The  bee 
plucks  a  wax  scale  from  its  abdomen  with  its  leg-pinchers 
and  passes  it  forward  to  its  mouth,  where  it  is  chewed. 
The  wax  is  then  ready  to  be  made  into  the  six-sided  cells 
which  make  the  comb.  The  workers  also  fill  the  cells 
with  the  honey  which  they  make  from  the  nectar  of  the 
flowers.  The  cells  are  not  all  of  the  same  size.  Some 
are  made  for  holding  honey;  others  in  which  the  queen 
lays  eggs,  are  sometimes  used  also  to  hold  honey  or 
pollen,  often  called  beebread.  This  beebread  is  a  sticky 
mass  that  the  bees  make  by  moistening  the  pollen  which 
they  gather  from  flowers.  It  is  of  various  colors  and 
somewhat  sweetish  to  the  taste. 

The  queen  bee  lays  her  eggs  in  three  separate  sets  of 
cells,  placing  one  egg  in  each  cell.  In  the  small  cells, 
she  lays  eggs  that  are  to  become  the  workers ;  in  the  cells 
next  larger,  she  lays  the  eggs  that  will  become  drones 
when  they  are  hatched.  Finally,  she  lays  a  few  eggs  in 
some  large  cells  built  on  the  edge  of  the  comb.  These 
are  called  royal  cells,  and  the  eggs  in  them  may  hatch 
queens  if  they  are  furnished  with  the  proper  kind  of  food 
by  the  workers. 


BEE-KEEPING  239 

The  drones,  as  you  might  think  from  the  name,  do  not 
gather  honey;  neither  do  they  have  stings.  They  are 
the  male  bees  in  the  hive,  and  the  workers,  after  the  har- 
vest is  ended,  drive  the  drones  out  of  the  hive  and  let 
them  starve,  or  sting  them  to  death  if  they  attempt  to 
return. 

Life  in  the  Hive. —  In  every  hive  or  colony  of  bees, 
there  are  more  worker  cells  than  any  other  kind,  for  it  is 
the  busy  workers  that  make  up  the  colony.  Among 
these,  there  are  a  great  many  that  act  as  nurses  in  the 
hive.  These  nurse  bees  take  charge  of  the  larvae  and 
feed  them.  As  the  larvae  lie  curled  up  in 
their  cells,  they  look  like  little  white  worms. 
The  nurse  bees  constantly  feed  the  larvae; 
first,  when  young,,  a  sort  of  "bee-milk" 
secreted  by  glands  in  their  own  heads,  and, 
later,  when  the  larvae  are  older,  a  mixture 
of  this  secretion  with  honey  and  pollen,  or, 
at  last,  only  honey  and  pollen.  When  the 
larvae  have  eaten  all  they  need,  they  fig.  ms-  — Larva 
straighten  out  their  small  bodies  and  the 
workers  put  a  cap  on  the  cell,  made  up  of  wax,  mixed 
with  gnawings  of  cocoons,  pollen  grains,  and  silk  threads. 
This  is  porous  and  permits  air  to  reach  the  developing 
insect.  Each  larva  then  spins  a  silken  cocoon  about 
itself  and  goes  to  sleep  in  its  waxen  cradle. 

It  takes  usually  twenty-one  days  from  the  time  the  egg 
is  laid  until  the  perfect  worker  bee  casts  aside  its  silken 
wrap,  gnaws  open  the  cell  cover  and  comes  out  with  four 
thin  wings.  The  young  queens  develop  in  about  sixteen 
days ;  but  drones  require  twenty- four  days. 


240  BEE-KEEPING 

Many  of  the  honey  cells  are  left  open  a  week  or  more 
after  they  are  filled;  for  the  bees  will  not  cap  them  over 
with  wax  until  they  know  that  the  honey  in  them  is 
"  ripe,"  or  ready  to  be  sealed  up.  So  it  is  always  easy 
for  the  young  bee  to  find  an  open  cell  where  it  can  eat  all 
it  wants. 

When  a  few  days  old  the  workers  act  as  nurse  bees,  and 
fly  out  only  for  exercise,  but,  in  a  couple  of  weeks  they 
gain  full  use  of  their  wings  and  go  outside  to  work  with 
the  older  bees.  It  is  well  that  it  begins  its  work  at  once, 
for  the  length  of  a  worker  bee's  life  is  but  a  few  months 
at  most,  and  some  of  them  live  only  a  few  weeks.  Queen 
bees,  however,  have  been  known  to  live  four  or  five  years. 
A  great  many  bees  in  the  hive  die  during  the  winter; 
but  the  queen  bee  begins  to  lay  her  eggs  in  midwinter  or 
very  early  in  the  spring,  and  those  eggs  hatch  out  so  fast 
that  the  number  in  the  hive  is  soon  as  large  as  ever.  A 
large  number  of  young  bees  come  out  of  the  cells  every 
day  during  the  hatching  season,  which  lasts  through  the 
^    '  ^*  warm    summer  months, 

and  thus  the  hive  is  al- 
ways kept  full. 

Swarming.- As    soon 

as  the  oldest  queen-cell  is 

sealed,  a  large  number  of 

bees,   together   with   the 

old  queen,  leave  the  hive 

Fig.    i46.-Beehive.  In  great  excitement.    This 

is  called  "swarming."     The  bees  protect  the  immature 

queen-cells  until  the  eldest  queen  emerges,  which  usually 

occurs  a  week  after  the  first  swarm  issues.     Should  the 


BEE-KEEPING 


241 


colony  be  sufficiently  strong,  this  young  queen  will  lead 
out  a  second  swarm,  and,  in  case  no  further  swarming  is 
decided  upon,  the  next  queen  which  emerges  will  be  per- 
mitted, and  even  assisted,  by  the  workers  in  destroying 
the  remaining  queen-cells.  The  bee-keeper  often  takes 
advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  secure  from  the  numer- 
ous cells  formed,  surplus  queens  for  colonies  that  have 
chanced  to  lose  their  own. 

If  the  new  queens  are  not  removed  as  soon  as  they 
come  out  of  their  cells,  the  ruling  queen  will  seek  them 
out,  and  sting  them  to  death. 

When  the  bees  "swarm,"  they  gather  about  the  queen 
in  a  black,  buzzing  mass,  and  may  alight  on  the  limb  of  a 
tree.  As  soon  as  possible,  spread  out  a  white  cloth  under 
the  tree.  Set  upon  this  a  clean,  cool  hive  and  shake  the 
bees  in  front  of  it,  propping  up 
the  hive  so  as  to  let  them  enter. 
The  limb  may  be  cut  from  the 
tree  with  the  adhering  bees,  or 
they  may  be  shaken  directly  into 
a  large  basket  and  poured  out  in 
front  of  the  empty  hive.  A  comb 
containing  unsealed  brood,  if 
placed  in  the  hive,  will  serve  as  a 
great  attraction  to  them.  Their 
strong  sense  of  smell  will  guide 
them  toward  it  and  they  will 
enter  their  new  home  joyfully. 
be  given  at  both  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  hive,  since 
the  bees  are  usually  much  heated  by  the  excitement  of 
swarming. 

G.  &  M.  Ag.  16. 


VSUSSk 


Fig. 


147. — Honeycomb. 

Plenty   of   air   should 


242  BEE-KEEPING 

Comb  Honey  and  Extracted  Honey. —  In  a  modern 
bee-hive,  each  comb  is  built  by  the  bees  in  a  movable 
frame,  so  that  the  bee-keeper  can  remove  the  combs  at 
will. 

After  the  hive  is  well  stored  with  honey,  small  frames, 
or  sections,  are  placed  over  the  brood  chamber  of  the 
hive  for  the  bees  to  fill  with  comb  and  honey.  Honey  in 
the  cells  is  called  "  comb  honey." 

Sometimes  the  combs  are  removed  from  the  hive  as 
fast  as  they  are  filled  with  honey,  and  placed  in  a  ma- 
chine called  a  "  honey  extractor."  Here  they  are  caused 
to  revolve  so  rapidly  that  the  honey  is  thrown  out  of  the 
cells.  It  then  appears  as  a  thick  liquid  like  syrup,  and  is 
called  "  extracted  honey." 

The  combs  are  then  replaced  in  the  hive  for  the  bees 
to  fill  again  with  honey.  Bees  do  not  like  to  see  empty 
cells  in  their  hive,  and  they  will  work  very  hard  to  fill 
them.  The  extracting  process,  therefore,  causes  bees  to 
make  more  honey  than  they  would  if  the  honey  were 
left  in  the  cells. 

Sources  of  Honey —  Although  many  kinds  of  flowers 
yield  some  honey,  the  honey  that  bees  store  up  in  their 
hives  is  mostly  secured  from  a  few  kinds.  White  and 
alsike  clovers,  alfalfa,  basswood,  raspberry,  sourwood, 
sweet  clover,  white  sage,  black  mangrove,  tulip  or  "  pop- 
lar "  trees,  buckwheat,  and  asters  yield  the  greater  part 
of  the  honey  on  the  market.  Honey  bees  are  able  to 
secure  only  a  small  part  of  the  honey  from  flowers  of  the 
red  clover. 

Crops  are  not  often  grown  on  purpose  for  bees,  as  this 
would  not  generally  prove  profitable. 


BEE-KEEPING  243 

Profits  in  Bee-keeping In  sections  where  honey- 
yielding  flowers  are  numerous,  and  not  too  many  bees 
are  kept,  bee-keeping  may  often  be  made  a  profitable 
addition  to  the  industries  of  the  farm.  The  bees  gather 
their  honey  wherever  they  can  find  it,  and  no  one  disputes 
their  right. 

Bee-keeping  by  modern  methods  requires  watchful 
care  and  skillful  management.  The  work  connected  with 
it  is,  however,  very  light,  and  is  easily  performed  by 
women. 

With  good  management,  bees  yield  a  considerable  in- 
come to  the  owner.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  protect 
them  from  their  enemies,  shelter  them  through  the  win- 
ter, and  furnish  them  with  sufficient  food  when  the  flow- 
ers are  not  in  blossom. 

Races  of  Bees There  are  numerous  breeds  or  races 

of  bees :  the  common  brown  or  black  bees,  the  Italians, 
the  Carniolans,  the  Cyprians,  the  Syrians,  and  the  Cau- 
casians. The  first  two  are  most  widely  spread  and  much 
intermixed  throughout  the  country.  Any  bees  possess- 
ing black  blood  should  be  avoided,  because  of  their  spite- 
fulness  and  inability  to  defend  their  hives  wholly  against 
the  wax  moths  and  other  bee  enemies.-  They  are  also 
less  industrious  than  the  Italians.  The  Carniolans  are 
quite  prolific,  excellent  honey  gatherers  and  very  gentle; 
being  quite  hardy,  they  winter  and  breed  well  in  the  cold- 
est of  climates,  and  their  comb  honey  is  of  snowy  white- 
ness. The  Cyprians  gather  the  most  honey  and  are  the 
best  defenders  of  their  hives,  but  require  quite  skillful 
handling,  as  they  are  very  vindictive  when  aroused.  The 
Syrians  are  similar,  but  not  superior,  to  the  Cyprians. 


244  BEE-KEEPING 

The  Caucasians,  recently  introduced  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  are  the  gentlestof  all  known 
races,  and  may  be  kept  on  the  lawn  or  in  the  flower 
garden  and  handled  at  any  time  without  protection  and 
with  no  fear  of  stings ;  they  are  also  diligent  workers, 
and  produce  honey  equal  to  that  of  any  of  the  others. 

Among  beekeepers  who  rear  queens  to  sell,  the  Italian 
race  is  the  most  popular.  Many  different  strains  of  Italian 
bees  have  been  developed.  Some,  having  leather-colored 
bands,  or  rings,  on  their  abdomens  are  called  leather- 
colored  Italians;  others,  having  abdomens  that  are  all 
yellow,  are  called  golden  Italians.  The  strain,  among  bees, 
is  of  more  importance  than  the  race  itself. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

1.  How  do  bees  help  the  farmer? 

2.  Trace  the  growth  of  a  bee  from  the  egg  to  maturity. 

3.  What  flowers  are  good  honey-yielders? 

4.  Name  some  races  of  bees.  Which  is  the  gentlest  race? 

5.  How  may  bee-keeping  be  made  a  profitable  business? 


44.     IMPROVEMENT     OF     HOME     AND 
SCHOOL    YARDS. 

Home  and  School  Yards. —  It  is  not  enough  that  our 
farms  produce  large  crops  to  be  sold  at  good  prices  and 
the  business  thus  be  made  profitable.  We  should  also 
look  to  our  surroundings.  We  should  have  good,  com- 
fortable, well-arranged  homes,  and  the  grounds  about 
them  should  be  made  as  attractive  as  possible.  We  shall 
be  better  men  and  women  if  we  live  in  beautiful  sur- 
roundings than  if  we  live  in  poorly-kept  and  ugly  quar- 
ters. Schoolhouses  and  school  yards,  too,  should  be 
made  as  beautiful  as  possible.  A  great  many  people 
would  be  glad  to  have  beautiful  homes  and  schoolhouses 
and  fine  yards  if  they  but  knew  how  to  obtain  them  at 
small  cost.  School  children  who  are  interested  can  do 
much  toward  beautifying  the  entire  neighborhood  in 
which  they  live. 

A  few  general  directions  are  given  that  may  help  in 
making  our  homes  and  our  schools  delightful  places  in 
which  to  live. 

Make  a  Plan. — It  is  well  to  make  a  plan  before  attempt- 
ing any  change  of  things  as  they  are.  This  will  make  it 
easy  to  do  part  of  the  work  this  year,  to  add  to  it  next 
year,  and  so  on  until  the  plan  is  carried  out.  Without 
a  plan,  we  may  make  improvements  that  we  shall  find  do 

245 


246  IMPROVING  HOME  AND   SCHOOL  YARDS 

not  lend  beauty  to  our  surroundings,  and  our  work  will 
be  entirely  lost.  Do  not  make  a  very  complex  plan.  A 
simple  one,  with  few  details,  is  much  better. 

Natural  Features —  Many  places  have  some  natural 
features  that  aid  in  the  work  of  beautifying  them.  A 
clump  of  trees,  a  small  hill,  a  stream  of  water,  or  a  pond, 
found  on  the  place,  should  be  used  in  the  plan  you  make. 
Do  not  try  to  get  rid  of  such  things,  but  lay  out  a  plan 
that  will  use  them  to  the  best  advantage. 


Fig.    148. —  A   problem   in   landscape   gardening. 

The  House  the  Important  Part —  The  house  should 
usually  be  the  most  important  part  of  the  plan.  It  need 
not  be  in  the  middle  of  the  lot,  but  other  things  should  be 
so  grouped  about  it  as  to  set  it  off.  So  often  we  see  a 
house  rising  boldly  from  the  center  of  a  yard,  with  no 
adornment  whatever.  Here  we  see  such  a  house  in  all 
its  loneliness.  It  *looks  cheerless,  and  no  amount  of 
money  spent  on  it  will  make  it  look  homelike,  unless  the 


IMPROVING  HOME   AND   SCHOOL   YARDS 


247 


shrubbery,  the  trees,  and  the  yard  in  general  are  planned 
to  make  the  house  a  part  of  the  whole. 


Fig.  i4g.— a  solution  of  the  problem  in  figure  148. 

In  Figure  149,  the  house  is  made  a  part  of  the  general 
out-of-door  plan. 


Fig.  150. — Evergreen  trees  should  not  be  trimmed. 


248 


IMPROVING  HOME  AND  SCHOOL  YARDS 


Open  Front  Yards Very  often  we  find  that  the  yard 

in  front  of  a  house  is  filled  with  shrubbery  or  with  flower 
beds.  It  is  far  better  to  leave  the  space  in  front  of  the 
house  entirely  open.  The  house  is  then  shown  to  much 
better  advantage,  and  the  yard  is  much  more  easily  cared 
for.  There  is  nothing  much  more  pleasing  than  a  well- 
kept  front  lawn. 

.!L  «-..«.«!  _«k  *^  «-  *-«^.*- 

-  9i  a..  *.*:'«.  k..  «8l  9.  4.  «L 
au.  <C  9.  <ai  «t..C  <%.  ^  8L 

:^.-;. .  o .  R.  c,  H  .A  ;p^  .D . :: . : 

^sSc^    *        .,>.ii-f,,.    ,; 
'Ti'ra -■"..":  ilTENNIS  COURT  !i  ■■.-•-;..-..;-  ••,-_■_".-  -^^^^^-■•^^■-'^S^k.  -  ~. 


IPpiiiii- 

"tft.D.e:.  n 


vs. 


m- 


R   O  A 

^" 


Fig.  151. —  Too  many  straight  paths. 

Shrubbery  and  Flowers. —  The  shrubbery  should  be 
arranged  in  masses,  and  not  with  the  shrubs  placed 
singly.  Let  the  branches  grow  thickly,  so  as  to  make  a 
mass  of  green.  These  masses  should  be  placed  on  the 
border  of  the  yard.     With  the  flowers,  they  make  a  fine 


IMPROVING   HOME  AND   SCHOOL  YARDS 


249 


frame  for  the  "  picture  "  we  are  trying-  to  make.  Shrubs 
may  be  placed,  also,  so  as  to  hide  outbuildings  or  to  form 
a  screen  for  the  backyard. 

Flowers  may  be  planted  close  to  the  house  or  just  in 
front  of  the  shrubbery.  They  should  not  be  planted  in 
separate  flower  beds  in  the  lawn. 

Vines. —  Vines  may  be  used  to  cover  old  fences,  or  to 


«»  a^  *^ «»~  a.  *.*.«-  *t  ♦.    i    B 

VL'L^'^^t  '*-. «-  «.  « 
■     ORCHARD 


m 


Si 


Fig.  152. —  Suggestion  for  improving  the  plan  of  paths  shown  in  figure  151. 

clamber  over  old  or  unpainted  buildings,  with  very  good 
effect.  With  vines  alone,  an  unpleasing  place  may  be 
changed  to  a  very  beautiful  one.  Vines  are  also  useful 
in  helping  to  make  the  house  a  part  of  the  "picture." 
Trees Trees  may  be  planted  in  groups  about  the 


250       IMPROVING  HOME  AND  SCHOOL  YARDS 

yard.  They  should  be  placed  so  as  to  be  of  some  use, 
either  in  giving  shade  or  in  forming  a  wind  break.  Ever- 
green trees  and  hard  wood  trees  should  not  be  planted  in 
the  same  group.  If  evergreen  trees  are  planted,  they 
should  not  be  trimmed  and  the  lower  branches  should  not 
be  cut.  They  look  much  prettier  in  their  natural  con- 
dition (Figure  150). 

Paths. — There  should  be  as  few  paths  as  possible, 
and  these  should  be  placed  so  that  they  will  be  the 
most  convenient.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  straight 
lines  in  laying  out  the  paths.  Sometimes  a  straight  path 
is  necessary  from  the  street  to  the  house,  but,  whenever 
it  is  possible,  the  paths  should  be  made  on  large  easy 
curves. 

Bams  and  Other  Buildings. — It  is  not  easy  to  tell  just 
where  and  how  the  barns,  stables,  granaries  and  other 
farm  buildings  should  be  placed.  Much  depends  upon 
local  conditions. 

The  barns  and  stables  should  not  be  placed  very  close 
to  the  house,  but  at  such  a  distance  that  the  barnyard 
odors  and  the  flies  will  not  be  troublesome.  The  gar- 
den, however,  may  be  placed  quite  near  the  house,  so  that 
it  may  be  easily  tended  and  watched. 

If  the  barns  and  stables  are  built  in  the  form  of  a  hol- 
low square,  with  one  side  left  open,  they  will  give  pro- 
tection against  the  winds  in  winter  and  will  furnish 
shade  in  summer. 

School  Yards. — The  school  yards  should  be  models  for 
the  whole  community.  Even  if  the  schoolhouse  is  not 
a  fine  building,  it  may  be  made  very  attractive  by  im- 
provements.      The    principles    of    landscape    gardening 


IMPROVING  HOME   AND   SCHOOL   YARDS 


251 


which  have  been  given  for  homes  apply  also  to  school 
yards. 

In  the  country,  where  land  is  cheap,  there  is  no  reason 
why  the  school  should  not  be  supplied  with  a  large  plot  of 
land.  This  will  furnish  room  for  a  lawn  and  for  a  good- 
sized  playground.  In  many  places,  also,  one  part  of 
the  school  ground  may  be  set  apart  for  a  school  garden, 
where  plants  of  different  kinds  may  be  raised  and  where 
the  principles  of  plant  growth  may  be  taught.     Unless 


.-rfU*-**^*****^ 


Fig.  153. — A  bare  school  yard. 

some  arrangement  is  made  for  the  care  of  the  school 
garden  during  the  summer  vacation,  however,  it  is  likely 
to  become  a  garden  of  weeds. 

The  picture  shown  in  Figure  153  is  a  very  common 
one,  much  more  common  than  it  should  be.  Notice  how 
bare  and  cheerless  it  is. 

In  Figure  154,  we  see  what  has  been  done  with  the 


252 


IMPROVING  HOME  AND  SCHOOL  YARDS 


school  yard  to  make  it  attractive  and  homelike.  The 
teacher  and  the  pupils  in  the  school  did  all  the  work,  and, 
with  no  expense,  made  this  wonderful  improvement.  The 
shrubbery  and  trees  were  obtained  by  the  boys  from  the 
woods.  Flower  seeds  and  bulbs  were  given  by  the  par- 
ents and  were  planted  by  the  girls  under  the  direction  of 
the  teacher.  All  worked  together  to  make  the  school  yard 
beautiful,  and  were  very  proud  of  the  result. 


Fig.  154. — A  suggestion  in  planting. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Make  a  general  plan  for  the  improvement  of  your 
school  grounds,  observing  carefully  the  suggestions  given. 

2.  Make  a  plan  for  the  improvement  of  the  yards 
about  your  home,  allowing  buildings,  fences,  and  trees  to 
remain  as  they  are  atpresent. 

3.  Make  a  plan  of  your  home  yards,  with  changes  in  the 
location  of  buildings,  fences,  and  trees. 


APPENDIX. 

Quantities  of  Seed 

Required  to  the  Acre. 

Name. 

Quantity  of  Seed. 

Name.         Quantity  of  Seed. 

Wheat 

IJ^  to  2  bushels. 

Broom  Corn 

1  to  1 1^  bushels, 

Barley 

11^  to  2}^  bushels. 

Potatoes 

5  to  10  bushels. 

Oats 

2  to  4  bushels. 

Timothy 

12  to  24  quarts. 

Rye 

1  to  2  bushels. 

Mustard 

8  to  20  quarts. 

Buckwheat      M  to  1|  bushels. 

Herd  Grass 

12  to  16  quarts. 

Millet 

1  to  1 J^  bushels. 

Flat  Turnip 

2  to  3  pounds. 

Corn 

J^  to  1  bushel. 

Red  Clover 

10  to  16  pounds, 

Beans 

1  to  2  bushels. 

White  Clover 

3  to  4  pounds. 

Peas 

23^  to  3^2  bushels. 

Blue  Grass 

10  to  15  pounds. 

Hemp 

1  to  13^  bushels. 

Orchard  Grass 

20  to  30  pounds. 

Flax 

^  to  2  bushels. 

Carrots 

4  to  5  pounds. 

Rice 

2  to  2^  pounds. 

Parsnips 

6  to  8  pounds. 

Directions  for  Preparing  Insecticides   and  Fungicides. 

Bordeaux  Mixture — Directions  are  given  on  page  57 
for  the  preparation  of  Bordeaux  mixture  in  small  quantities. 
Below  are  given  directions  for  larger  quantities: — 

4  lb.  copper  sulfate. 
4  lb.  fresh  lime. 
50  gal.  of  water. 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulfate  and  slake  the  lime  as 
shown  on  page  58.  Dilute  each  to  25  gallons,  and  pour 
together,  making  50  gallons  of  the  mixture.  Spray.  Use 
for  apple  and  plum  rot;  potato,  melon,  celery,  strawberry, 
and  tomato  blight;  plum  pockets,  currant  and  grape 
anthracnose. 

253 


254  APPENDIX 

Paris  Green  or  Arsenate  of  Lead. — Directions  for 
preparation  and  use  of  Paris  green  are  given  on  page  56. 
Arsenate  of  lead  is  somewhat  safer  than  Paris  green,  and 
is  not  so  liable  to  burn  the  foliage. 

Directions:  Dissolve  11  oz.  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of 
lead)  in  4  quarts  of  water  in  a  wooden  pail,  and  4  oz.  arse- 
nate of  soda  in  a  quart  of  water  in  another  wooden  pail. 
Pour  the  solutions  together  and  add  enough  water  to  make 
150  gal.  (Instead  of  making  the  arsenate  of  lead  solu- 
tion, a  market  preparation  such  as  disparene  may  be  used 
in  the  proportion  of  3  or  4  lb.  to  50  gal.  of  water.)  Sprinkle 
or  spray. 

Use  for  codling  moth,  tent  caterpillar,  potato  beetle,  and 
all  other  biting  insects. 

Bordeaux  Mixture  and  Paris  Green  or  Arsenate  of 
Lead. — It  is  usually  wise  to  make  a  combination  mixture, 
so  that  one  operation  will  get  rid  of  the  fungi  and  the  biting 
insects  that  may  be  destroying  the  leaves  or  fruit  at  the  same 
time. 

To  each  50  gal.  of  Bordeaux  mixture  add  4  oz.  of  Paris 
green;  or,  to  each  50  gal.  of  Bordeaux  mixture  add  i  gal. 
of  the  arsenate  of  lead  solution  before  it  is  diluted  with 
water.    Spray. 

Kerosene  Emulsion. — See  page  56. 

2  gal.  kerosene. 
^  lb.  common  soap. 
I  gal.  water. 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  hot  water,  add  the  kerosene,  and 
churn  together  until  a  white  creamy  mass  is  formed  which 
thickens  on  cooling.  Dilute  with  nine  times  the  amount 
of  water  before  using.     If  it  is  more  convenient,   i     gal.  of 


APPENDIX  255 

sour  milk  may  be  used  with  2  gal.  of  kerosene.  Dilute  as 
before.    Spray. 

Use  for  plant  lice  and  all  other  kinds  of  soft-bodied 
sucking  insects. 

Formalin. — See  page  58. 

A.  One-half  pint  of  formalin  (formaldehyde)  with  15  gal. 
of  water.    B.  One  pint  of  formalin  with  50  gal.  of  water. 

Use  for:  A.  Potato  scab.  Soak  the  seed  potatoes  two 
hours  in  this  solution  before  planting.  B.  Smut  on  grain. 
Soak  the  grain  used  for  seed  in  this  solution  from  one  to  two 
hours  before  planting. 

Hellebore. — See  page  156. 

This  preparation  is  not  poisonous  to  man,  so  it  may  be  used 
in  place  of  Paris  green  when  it  is  applied  to  parts  of  the  plant 
that  are  to  be  eaten.  It  may  be  dusted  on  the  plant,  or  i  oz. 
of  hellebore  may  be  mixed  with  2  gal.  of  water  and  sprayed  on 
the  plants. 

Use  for  currant  worm,  rose  slugs,  and  other  sawfly  larvae. 

Common  Soap. — See  page  56. 

I  lb.  common  soap. 

8  gal.  water. 

Spray  upon  foliage. 

Use  for  red  spider,  plant  lice,  and  other  sucking  insects.' 

Carbon  Disulphide. — Gophers  may  be  killed  with  the 
fumes  of  carbon  disulphide.  Soak  cotton  with  the  liquid, 
put  it  in  the  gopher  hole,  and  plug  it  up  tight  to  keep  in 
the  fumes. 

Ant  hills  may  be  destroyed  by  pouring  the  liquid  into 
holes  made  by  a  stick  thrust  into  the  hill.  The  hill  should 
then  be  covered  with  a  wet  blanket  to  keep  in  the  fumes 
and  allowed  to  remain  for  twenty-four  hours. 


256  APPENDIX 

Insects  in  closed  bins  may  be  killed  with  the  fumes  of 
this  liquid.    Use  i  pint  for  each  100  bu.  of  grain. 

Caution:  Do  not  use  this  liquid  in  the  presence  of  fire. 
It  is  very  inflammable  and  its  fumes  are  explosive. 

Lime  and  Sulphur  Mixtture. — See  page  169. 

20  lb.  lime. 
14  lb.  sulphur. 
40  gal.  water. 

Boil  one  hour  and  apply  while  still  warm.  This  must  be 
applied  before  the  buds  come  out  in  the  spring.  It  will 
destroy  buds  and  foliage. 

Use  for  San  Jose  scale. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas. — 

1  oz.  cyanide  of  potash. 

2  oz.  sulphuric  acid. 
4  oz.  water. 

For  each  100  cu.  ft.  of  space. 

This  gas  is  used  for  killing  insfects  in  rooms  that  may  be 
closed  tight.  Nursery  stock  is  freed  of  all  insect  pests  by 
placing  it  in  a  room  where  this  gas  is  generated.  A  room 
should  be  thoroughly  ventilated  for  at  least  ten  minutes 
before  entering  after  the  gas  has  been  used.  This  is  so 
poisonous  a  gas  that  it  is  safer  to  have  the  fumigation  done 
by  an  expert  or  one  who  has  had  a  great  deal  of  experience 
with  it. 

Sticky  Fly  Paper. — If  a  ring  of  any  sticky  substance 
is  placed  about  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  it  will  prevent  insects 
climbing  up  to  eat  the  foliage  or  to  lay  their  eggs.  Strips 
of  sticky  fly  paper  may  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Use  for  the  cankerworm. 


APPENDIX 


257 


DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  COMMON  FEEDS. 


Feed 


Total  Dry 
Matter  in 

1  LB. 


Concentrates: 

Dent  Corn 

Flint  Corn 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal 

Oats 

Barley 

Wheat  Bran 

Kaffir  Com 

Cowpeas 

Gluten  Meal 

Linseed  Meal,  new  process 

Cottonseed  Meal 

Green  Fodders: 

Timothy 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass 

Hungarian  Grass 

Redtop 

Orchard  Grass 

Alfalfa 

Red  Clover 

Cowpeas 

Soy  Beans 

Rye  Fodder 

Barley  Fodder 

Oat  Fodder 

Oats  and  Peas 

Barley  and  Peas 

Green  Corn  Fodder 

Green  Sorghum  Fodder. .  . 

Rape 

Mangels 

Barnyard  Millet 

Crimson  Clover 

Corn  Silage 

Sorghum  Silage 

Cowpea  Silage 

Soy  Bean  Silage 

G.  &  M.  Ag.  17 


Digestible  Nutrients  in  1  lu 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Fat   (Ether 

E.ttract) 

Alone 


In  Decimal  Fractions  of  One  Pound 


.894 
.887 
.849 
.890 
.892 
.881 
.901 
.854 
.905 
.910 
.930 

.383 
.349 
.289 
.347 
.270 
.282 
.292 
.166 
.249 
.234 
.210 
.378 
.160 
.160 
.207 
.206 
.140 
.091 
.269 
.193 
.209 
.239 
.207 
.2.58 


.078 
.080 
.044 
.088 
.084 
.119 
.052 
.168 
.297 
.315 
.376 

.012 
.030 
.020 
.021 
.015 
.039 
.029 
.018 
.032 
.021 
.019 
.026 
.018 
.017 
.010 
.006 
.015 
.010 
.014 
.021 
.009 
.006 
.015 
.027 


.668 

.602 

.60 

.492 

.653 

.420 

.443 

.549 

.425 

.357 

.214 


.160 
.212 
.113 
.126 
.148 
.087 
.109 
.141 
.102 
.189 
.071 
.072 
.116 
.122 
.081 
.055 
.106 
.093 
.113 
.149 
.085 
.086 


.043 
.043 
.029 
.013 
.016 
.025 
.014 
.011 
.061 
.024 
.096 

.006 
.008 
.004 
.006 
.005 
.005 
.007 
.002 
.005 
.004 
.004 
.010 
.002 
.002 
.004 
.004 
.002 
.002 
.005 
.004 
.007 
.002 
.009 
.013 


Ncrrair.NT 
Ratio  Pro- 
tein TO 
Carbohy- 

DR.ATES 

AND  Fats 


258 


APPENDIX 


DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  COMMON  FEEDS. 


Feed 


Total  Dry 
Matter  in 

1  LB. 


Clover  Silage 

Alfalfa  Silage 

Hay  and  Straw: 

Timothy  Hay 

Mixed  Grass  and  Clover. . 
Kentucky  Blue  Grass  Hay 

Orchard  Grass  Hay 

Hungarian  Hay 

Barnyard  Millet  Hay .... 

Mbced  Grass  Hay 

Mixed  Rowen 

Alfalfa  Hay 

Red  Clover  Hay 

Alsike  Clover  Hay 

Cowpea  Hay 

Soy  Bean  Hay   

Vetch  Hay 

Redtop  Hay 

Oat  Hay 

Oat  and  Vetch  Hay 

Corn  Fodder  (Field  Cured)  . 
Corn  Stover  (Field  Cured 

Peanut  Hay 

Wheat  Straw 

Oat  Straw 

Barley  Straw 

Rye  Straw 

Pea  Vine  Straw 

Soy  Bean  Straw 

Kaffir  Corn  Stover 

White  Clover 


Digestible  Nutrients  in  1  lb. 


Protein 


Caibohy- 
drates 


Fat    (Ether 

Extract) 

Alone 


In  Decimal  Fr.ictions  of  One  Pound 


.280 
.275 

.8(58 
.859 
.788 
.901 
.923 
.890 
.871 
.834 
.916 
.847 
.903 
.893 
.887 
.887 
.911 
.911 
.869 
.578 
.595 
.924 
.904 
.90S 
.858 
.929 
.864 
.899 
.808 
.903 


.020 
.030 

.028 
.064 
.048 
.049 
.045 
.072 
.059 
.079 
.110 
.068 
.084 
.108 
.108 
.129 
.048 
.043 
.078 
.025 
.017 
.068 
.004 
.012 
.007 
.006 
.043 
.023 
.018 
.115 


.135 
.085 

.434 
.383 
.373 
.423 
.510 
.377 
.409 
.401 
.396 
.357 
.425 
.385 
.388 
.336 
.469 
.464 
.384 
.346 
.324 
.419 
.363 
.386 
.412 
.406 
.323 
.400 
.414 
.418 


.010 
.019 

.014 
.015 
.020 
.014 
.013 
.010 
.012 
.015 
.012 
.017 
.015 
.011 
.015 
.031 
,010 
.015 
.004 
.012 
.007 
.030 
.004 
.008 
.006 
.004 
.008 
.010 
.009 
.014 


Nutrient 

Ratio  Pro- 
tein to 

Carbohy- 
drates 

AND  Fats 


to  7.9 
to   4.3 

to  16.6 
to  6.5 
to  8.7 
to  9.2 
to  12.0 
to    5.5 


7.4 
5.5 
3.8 
5.8 
5.4 
3.8 
3.9 
3.1 
to  10.3 
to  11.6 
to  5  0 
to  14.9 
to  20.0 
to  7.2 
to  93.0 
to  33.6 
to  60.8 
to  69.1 
to  7.9 
to  18.4 
to  24.0 
to   3.9 


APPENDIX 


259 


AMOUNT  OF  NUTRIENTS  FOR  A  DAY'S 

FEEDING. 

Digestible 

•5, 

u 

nutrients 

•s 

to 
u 

Standard 

Animal 

4J 

t 

n 

u 

s 

•0 

c 

•c 

6  es. 

> 

V 

CQ 

" 

a 

J2   U' 

'u 

0 

1.-0 

0 

u 

rt  >> 

cd 

3 

J 

H 

a, 

0.a 

U. 

sc 

Oxen 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Wolff-Leh- 

mann 

At  rest  in  stall 

Fattening  Cattle 

1000 

18. 

0.7 

8. 

0.1 

1:11.8 

Wolff-Leh- 

mann 

First   period    

1000 

30. 

2.5 

15. 

0.5 

I:  6.5 

" 

Second   period    

1000 

30. 

3.0 

14.5 

0.7 

I:  6.4 

if 

Third  period 

Dairy    Cows 
Milch      cows,      pro- 
ducing 16   lbs.   of 

1000 

26. 

2.7 

15. 

0.7 

l:  6.2 

milk  per  day 

1000 

27. 

2.0 

11. 

0.4 

1:  6.0 

Wolff-Leh. 

Horses 

mann 

Light  work    

1000 

20. 

1.5 

9. 

0.4 

1:  7.0 

« 

Medium  work    

1000 

24. 

2.0 

11.5 

0.6 

1:  6.2 

4t 

Heavy  work    

Growing  Cattle 

1000 

26. 

2.5 

13.3 

0.8 

1:  6.0 

Wolff-Leh- 

Dairy   breeds 
(Age  in  months) 

mann 

2-3 

150 

3.5 

0.60 

1.95 

0.300 

1:4.5 

,^ 

3-6 

300 

7.2 

0.90 

3.84 

0.300 

1:5.1 

„ 

6-12 

500 

13  5 

1.00 

6.25 

0.250 

1:6.8 

„ 

12-18 

700 

18.2 

1.26 

8.75 

0.280 

1:7.5 

18-24 

900 

23.4 

1.35 

10.80 

0.270 

1:8.5 

Wolff-Leh- 

Beef  breeds 

mann 

2-3 

160 

3.7 

0.67 

2.08 

0.320 

1:4.2 

3-6 

330 

7.9 

1.16 

4.22 

0.495 

1:4.7 

jj 

6-12 

550 

13.8 

1.38 

7.26 

0.3S5 

1:6.0 

12-18 

750 

18.0 

1.50 

9.38 

0.375 

1:6.7 

18-24 

950 

22.8 

1.71 

11.40 

0.380 

1:7.2 

Grozving  Sheep 

Wolff-Leh- 

Wool  breeds 

mann 

4-6 

60 

1.5 

0.20 

0.92 

0.042 

1:5.0 

" 

6-8 

75 

1.9 

0.21 

1.04 

0.045 

1:5.4 

" 

8-11 

80 

1.8 

0.17 

0.92 

0.040 

1:6.0 

** 

11-15 

90 

2.0 

0.16 

1.01 

0.036 

1:7.0 

" 

15-20 

100 

2.2 

0.15 

1.08 

0.030 

1:7.7 

Wolff-Leh- 

Mutton  breeds 

mann 

4-6 

60 

1.6 

0.26 

0.93 

0.054 

1:4.0 

" 

6-8 

80 

2.1 

0.28 

1.20 

0.056 

1=4.8 

" 

8-11 

100 

2.4 

0.30 

1.43 

0.050 

1:5.2 

" 

11-15 

120 

2.8 

0.26 

1.51 

0.060 

1:6.3 

15-20 

150 

3.3 

0.30 

1.80 

0.060 

1:6.5 

*  The  nutritive  ratio  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  number  of  pounds  of  fat 
by  ZYu,  adding  the  product  to  the  number  of  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  and 
dividing  this  sum  by  the  number  of  pounds  of  protein. 


26o 


APPENDIX 


AMOUNT    OF   NUTRIENTS    FOR   A   DAY'S    FEEDING. 


Standard 

Animal 

continued 

be 
'S 

o 

> 

3 

E 

•a 

H 
o 
H 

Digestible 
nutrients 

o 

« 

u 

u 

> 

c 
'5 

m 

it 

re.a 



a! 

WolfE-Leh- 
mann 

Wolff-Leh- 
mann 

Growing  Swine 
Breeding  stock     - 
(Age.   in    months) 

2-3 
3-5 

5-6 
6-8 
8-12 

Growing    fattening 
Swine 

2-3 
3-5 

5-6 
6-8 
9-12 

lbs. 

50 
100 
120 
200 
250 

50 
100 
150 
200 
200 

lbs. 

2  2 
3!5 
3.8 
5.6 
6.3 

2.2 
3.5 
5.0 
6.0 
5.2 

lbs. 

0.38 
0.50 
0.44 
0.56 
0.53 

0.38 
0.50 
0.65 
0.72 
0.60 

lbs. 

1.40 
2.31 
2.56 
3.74 
3.83 

1.40 
2.31 
3.35 
4.10 
3.66 

lbs. 

0.050 
0.080 
0.048 
0.060 
0.050 

0.050 
0.080 
0.090 
0.080 
0.060 

1:4.0 
1:5.0 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:7.5 

1:4.0 
1:5.0 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.4 

Human  beings 

Pro- 
tein 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and 
I'ats 

Children,    6-15    yrs. 

Students 

Professional    Men 

Man    with    moderate 

work 
Man  with  hard  work 

O.IO 
0.20 
0.27 

0.2S 
0.39 

0.93 
1.11 
1.76 

1.62 
2.t)7 

1:5.2 
1:5.5 
1:4.7 

1:5.8 
1:6.9 

APPENDIX 


261 


FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  IN  AMERICAN 
FEEDING  STUFFS. 


NAME  OF  FEED 


Fertilizing  Constituents  in 
1,000    Pounds 


Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Concentrates 


Corn,  all  analyses  .  . 

Corn  Cob   

Corn  and  Cob  Meal. 

Corn  Bran   

Gluten  Meal 

Germ  Meal  

Starch  Refuse 

Grano-Gluten    

Hominy  Chops  .... 

Sugar   Meal 

Starch  Feed,  wet. . . 


Wheat    

High-grade  Flour  . . . 
Low-grade  Flour  ... 
Dark    Feeding    Flour, 

Wheat  Bran 

Wheat   Shorts    

Wheat  Middlings  . . .  . 
Wheat   Screenings    .  . 


Rye  

Rye  Bran   . 
Rye  Shorts 


Barley    

Malt  Sprouts    

Brewers'  Grains,  wet  . . 
Brewers'   Grains,   dried. 


Oats    

Oat  Feed  or  Shorts. 
Oat  Hulls   


Rice  

Rice  Hulls 

Rice  Bran    . 

Rice  Polish 


Buckwheat     

Buckwheat  Hulls  .  . 
Buckwheat  Bran  .  . 
Buckwheat  Middling 


Sorghum  Seed 
Millet 


Flax  Seed 

Linseed  Meal,  old  process.  . 
Linseed  Meal,   new  process. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


18.2 

7.0 

5.0 

.6 

14.1 

5.7 

16.3 

12.1 

60.3 

3.3 

26.5 

8.0 

22.4 

7.0 

49.8 

5.1 

16.3 

9.8 

36.3 

4.1 

9.8 

1.0 

23.6 

7.9 

18.9 

2.2 

28.9 

5.6 

31.8 

21.4 

26.7 

28.9 

28.2 

13.5 

26.3 

9.5 

24.4 

11.7 

17.6 

8.2 

23.2 

22.8 

18.4 

12.6 

15.1 

7.9 

35.5 

14.3 

8.9 

3.1 

36.2 

10.3 

20.6 

8.2 

17.2 

9.1 

5.2 

2.4 

10.8 

1.8 

5.8 

1.7 

7.1 

2.9 

19.7 

26.7 

14.4 

4.4 

4.9 

0.7 

36.4 

17.8 

42.8 

21.9 

14.8 

8.1 

20.4 

8.5 

36.1 

13.9 

64.3 

16.6 

67.8 

18.3 

262 


APPENDIX 


NAME  OF  FEED 


Fodder  Corn,  green 

Fodder   Corn,   field-cured.- 
Corn  Stover,      field-cured. 


Fresh  Grass 


Pasture  Grasses  (mixed) . 
Timothy,  different  stages 
Orchard  Grass,  in  bloom. 

Oat  Fodder  

Rye  Fodder  

Sorghum  

Hungarian  Grass 


Hay 


Timothy    

Orchard  Grass  

Redtop    

Kentucky  Blue  Grass. 
Hungarian  Grass  .... 

Mixed  Grasses 

Rowen  (mixed) 

Meadow   Fescue   

Soja-bean  Hay 


Straw 


Wheat 

Rye    

Oat    

Barley    

Wheat   Chaff 


Fertilizing  Constituents  in 
1,000   Pounds 


Concentrates  —  continued 

Cotton  Seed  

Cotton-seed  Meal   

Cotton-seed  Hulls   

Cocoanut  Meal    

Palm-nut   Meal    

Sunflower  Seed  

Sunflower-seed  Cakes   

Peanut  Meal    

Rape-seed   Meal 

Peas     

Soja   (Soy)   Bean 

Horse  Bean   

Roughage 

Fodder   Corn 


Nitrogen 


Lbs. 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


31.3 

12.7 

67.9 

28.8 

6.9 

2.5 

32.8 

16.0 

26.9 

11.0 

22.8 

12.2 

55.5 

21.5 

75.6 

13.1 

49.6 

20.0 

30.8 

8.2 

53.0 

18.7 

40.7 

12.0 

Lbs. 


4.1 

1.5 

17.6 

5.4 

10.4 

2.9 

9.1 

2.3 

4.8 

2.6 

4.3 

1.6 

4.9 

1.3 

3.3 

1.5 

2.3 

0.9 

3.9 

1.6 

12.6 

5.3 

13.1 

4.1 

11.5 

3.6 

11.9 

4.0 

12.0 

3.5 

14.1 

2.7 

16.1 

4.3 

9.9 

4.0 

23.2 

6.7 

5,9 

1.2 

4.6 

2.8 

6.2 

2.0 

13.1 

3.0 

7.9 

7.0 

APPENDIX 


263 


NAME  OF  FEED 


Fertilizing  Constituents  in 
1,000   Pounds 


Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Roughage  —  continued 
Fresh  Legumes 

Red  Clover,  different  stages 

Alsike,  bloom 

Crimson  Clover  

Alfalfa 

Cowpea    

Soja  Bean 

Legume  Hay  and  Straw 

Red  Clover,  medium 

Red  Clover,  mammoth  

Alsike   Clover 

\V  bite  Clover   

Crimson  Clover   

Alfalfa   

Cowpea  

Soja-bean  Straw   

Pea-vine  Straw   

Silage 
Corn 

Roots  and  Tubers 

Potato    

Beet,  common   

Beet,  sugar   

Beet,  mangel 

Flat  Turnip 

Ruta-baga   

Carrot   

Parsnip    

Artichoke   

Miscellaneous 

Cabbage  

Spurry  

Sugar-beet  Leaves 

Pumpkin,  garden 

Prickly  Comfrey    

Rape 

Dried  Blood 

Meat  Scrap 

Dried   Fish   

Beet  Pulp 

Beet  Molasses   

Cows'  Milk 

Cows'  Milk,  colostrum 

Skim  Milk,  gravity 

Skim  Milk,  centrifugal 

Buttermilk    

Whey   


Lbs. 


2.8 


Lbs. 


5.3 

1.3 

4.4 

1.1 

4.3 

1.3 

7.2 

1.3 

2.7 

1.0 

2.9 

1.5 

20.7 

3.8 

22.3 

5.5 

23.4 

6.7 

27.5 

5.2 

20.5 

4.0 

21.9 

5.1 

19.5 

5.2 

17.5 

4.0 

14.3 

3.5 

3.2 

1.2 

2.4 

0.9 

2.2 

1.0 

1.9 

0.9 

1.8 

1.0 

1.9 

1.2 

1.5 

0.9 

1.8 

2.0 

2.6 

1.4 

3.8 

1.1 

3.8 

2.5 

4.1 

1.5 

1.1 

1.6 

4.2 

1.1 

4.5 

1.5 

135.0 

13.5 

113.9 

7.0 

77.5 

120.0 

1.4 

0.2 

14.6 

0.5 

5.3 

1.9 

28.2 

6.6 

5.6 

2.0 

5.6 

2.0 

4.8 

1.7 

1.5 

1.4 

264 


APPENDIX 


Weights  of  Grain,  Seeds,  etc. 

The  table  given  below  shows  the  weight  of  grain,  seeds, 
etc.,  per  bushel,  as  established  by  the  Legislatures  of  the 
states  named: 


Articles 


Wheat 

Rye 

Corn 

Oats 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Clover  Seed 

Timothy  Seed .  .  .  . 

Flax  Seed 

Hemp  Seed 

Blue  Grass  Seed. .  . 

Apples,  Dried 

Peaches.  Dried. .  . . 

Coarse  Salt 

Fine  Salt 

Potatoes 

Peas 

Beans 

Castor  Beans 

Onions 

Corn  Meal 


a 

CO 

T5 

a 

a 

a 

>> 

0 

a 

03 

D 

a 
a 

m 

a 
a 

1 

0 

3 

•-5 

a 
0 

3 

^ 

0 

a 
a 

'■5 

^ 

OS 

0 
□ 

J3 

a 

i 

.a 

fl 

& 

H 

^ 

z 

0 

is 

^ 

^ 

<5 

0 

•?-. 

« 

W 

Z 

> 

^ 

fiO 

60 

()0 

60 

60 

(iO 

60 

60 

60 

(iO 

60 

60 

(>0 

60 

60 

.i() 

5() 

5() 

56 

,56 

.56 

5() 

,5() 

56 

56 

56 

5(i 

66 

5(i 

,5(5 

.■56 

.5(i 

56 

5(i 

,56 

.56 

,56 

ij() 

.5() 

56 

56 

56 

66 

.5(i 

56 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

30 

32 

32 

48 

48 

47 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

48 

47 

48 

48 

48 

48 

.50 

48 

.50 

48 

52 

52 

48 

48 

48 

48 

56 

60 

48 

52 

GO 

64 

60 

()0 

()0 

60 

60 

60 

()0 

60 

64 

60 

(50 

4.=> 

45 

45 

45 

45 

45 

45 

45 

45 

45 

45 

00 

40 

56 

55 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

66 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

44 

40 

44 

44 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

25 

24 

25 

28 

24 

24 

22 

24 

25 

24 

33 

33 

33 

28 

33 

33 

28 

39 

33 

32 

r)() 

.50 

85 

.50 

.50 

50 

50 

5i\ 

50 

(i.3 

.50 

.50 

50 

50 

(iO 

60 

.5() 

60 

60 

60 

60 

()0 

(iO 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

(in 

(>() 

(iO 

60 

(iO 

60 

00 

60 

(H) 

60 

00 

60 

60 

()0 

(iO 

60 

()() 

()0 

60 

60 

60 

(iO 

62 

60 

4(5 

46 

46 

46 

46 

46 

.57 

55 

.50 

48 

57 

57 

57 

.54 

.50 

,50 

.50 

57 

57 

52 

57 

50 

50 

50 

48 

50 

.50 

50 

50 

50 

60 
56 
56 
32 
48 
40 
60 
45 
56 
50 
14 
28 
28 
56 
56 
60 
60 
60 


Diagrams  of  Farm  Animals. 


1.  Comb. 

2.  Face. 

3.  Wattles. 

4.  Ear-lobes. 
5   Hackle. 

6.  Breast. 

7.  Back. 

8.  Saddle. 

!t.  Saddle-feathers. 

10.  Sickles. 

11.  Tail-coverts. 

12.  Main  tail  feathers. 

13.  Wing-bow. 


14.  Wing  coverts,  form- 
inK  wing-bar. 

15.  Secondaries,      wing- 
bay. 

16.  Primaries    or    flight 
feathers;  wing-buts. 

17.  Point  of  breast  bone. 

18.  Thighs. 

19.  Hocks. 

20.  Shanks  or  legs. 

21.  Spur. 

22.  Toes  or  claws. 


Fig.  155. — Diagram  of  a  chicken. 


^K 


Fig.  156. — Diagram  of  a  cow. 


Head. 
Muzzle. 


3.  Nostril. 

4.  Face. 


APPENDIX 

5. 

Eye. 

25. 

j/^^^7                6. 

Forehead. 

26. 

"S  ■'  Ti •--             7. 

Horn. 

27. 

^^s;^*y  8. 

Ear. 

28. 

Cheek. 

29. 

"             ii! 

Throat. 

30. 

Neck. 

31. 

12. 

Withers. 

32. 

TO                     13. 

Back. 

33. 

14. 

Loins. 

34. 

15. 

Hip  bone. 

35. 

16. 

Pelvic  arch. 

36. 

17. 

Rump. 

37. 

»t.                     18. 

Tail. 

38. 

19. 

Switch. 

39. 

20. 

Chest. 

40. 

21. 

Brisket. 

41. 

22. 

Dewlap. 

42. 

23. 

Shoulder. 

43. 

24. 

Elbow. 

265 


Forearm. 

Knee. 

Ankle. 

Hoof. 

Heart  girth. 

Side  or  barrel. 

Belly. 

Flank. 

Milk  vein. 

Fore  udder. 

Hind  udder. 

Teats. 

Upper  thigh. 

Stifle. 

Twist. 

Leg  or  gaskin. 

Hock. 

Shank. 

Dew  claw. 


1. 

Head. 

16. 

Chest. 

2. 

Face. 

17. 

Shoulder. 

3. 

Muzzle. 

18. 

Elbow. 

4. 

Nostril. 

19. 

Forearm. 

5. 

Eye. 

20. 

Knee. 

6. 

Ear. 

21. 

Ankle. 

7. 

Cheek. 

22. 

Claw. 

8. 

Neck. 

23. 

Girth  Measure. 

9. 

Withers. 

24. 

Side  or  Barrel. 

10. 

Throat. 

25. 

Belly. 

11. 

Back. 

26. 

Flank. 

12. 

Loins. 

27. 

Hip  Joint. 

13. 

Angle  of  Iliun- 

.28. 

Stifle  Joint. 

14. 

Rump. 

29. 

Hock  Joint. 

15. 

Tail  or  Dock. 

Fig.  157. — Diagram  of  a  sheep. 


I      9, 


Fig.  158. — Diagram  ot  a  horse. 


0.  Poll    or    nape 

of  the  neck. 

1.  Neck. 

1'.  Jugular  gutter. 

2.  Withers. 

3.  Back. 

4.  Loins. 

5.  Croup. 

6.  Tail. 

7.  Parotid  region. 

8.  Throat. 

9.  Shoulder. 

10.  Point    of    the 

shoulder. 

11.  Arm. 

12.  Elbow. 

13.  Forearm. 

14.  Chestnut. 

15.  Knee. 

16.  Canon. 

17.  Fetlock. 

18.  Pastern. 


19.  Coronet. 

20.  Foot. 

21.  Xiphoid 

region. 

22.  Ribs. 

23.  Abdomen. 

24.  Flank. 

25.  Sheath. 

26.  Testicles. 

27.  Buttock. 

27  bis.    Angle 

of  buttock. 

28.  Thigh. 

28  bis.  Haunch. 

29.  Stifle. 

30.  Leg. 

31.  Hock. 

32.  Chestnut. 
83.  Canon. 

34.  Fetlock. 

35.  Pastern. 

36.  Coronet. 


266  APPENDIX 

How  to  Obtain  Agricultural  Literature. 

Besides  the  large  number  of  agricultural  papers  that 
are  available  for  the  fanner  at  very  small  cost,  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  issues  a  large  number  of  inter- 
esting documents,  many  of  which  are  sent  free  to  any  who 
apply  for  them,  while  some  others  may  be  obtained  for 
a  small  price. 

Write  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.  C,  and  request  a  list  of  the  publications  issued  by  the 
Department  for  free  distribution. 

"  The  Farmers'  Bulletins "  are  probably  the  most 
helpful  publications  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. There  are  over  two  hundred  issued  and  the 
number  is  being  increased  rapidly.  From  the  list  which 
you  receive  from  the  Department  you  may  select  such  as 
interest  you  and  request  them  sent  to  you.  You  may 
write  to  your  Congressman  for  them  or  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

Each  year  the  Department  of  Agriculture  issues  a  fine 
illustrated  "  Year  Book."  This  may  be  obtained  free 
by  application  to  the  Congressman  of  your  district  or  to 
either  of  your  United  States  Senators. 

If  you  have  an  Experiment  Station  in  your  State,  find 
its  location  and  write  to  the  "  Director  of  Experiment 
Station,"  requesting  that  your  name  be  placed  on  the 
permanent  mailing  list  to  receive  all  the  bulletins  issued 
by  the  station. 

You  may  also  request  such  bulletins  as  you  know  to 
have  been  issued  by  the  Station.  They  will  be  sent  free 
of  cost. 


INDEX. 


PACK 

Aberdeen  Angus  cattle igo 

Acid  soils 45,  46 

Agricultural  literature 266 

Air,  in  seeds 60,  61 

Albumen 194,  206 

Alfalfa 43,  44 

Ameba 10 

Animal  husbandry 184,   185 

Annuals 1 26 

Anther 93 

Apple,  culture  of 158-160 

Arabian  horse 213 

Ashes,  wood    36 

Aylesbury  ducks 235 

Ayrshire  cattle 187 

Babcock  test 195 

directions  for 201-204 

Bacteria,  in  legume  roots. . .   42,  44-46 

of   milk 198 

Barns  and  other  buildings 250 

Bartlett  pear 95 

Beef 49 

Beef  breeds 189-190 

Bees ■ 237-244 

Beetles,  lady-bird 176 

potato 55 

Berkshire  hogs 225 

Biennials 126 

Bindweed 145,  146 

Birds 179-183 

food  of 181 

Blackberry,  culture  of 154,   155 

Blight,  of  pear  tree.    57 

Bluestone 57 


PAGE 

Blue  vitriol 57 

Bordeaux  mixture ' -57,  s8 

Borer,  flat-headed 158 

Brahma  chickens 230 

Brassica 138 

Breeding,  plant 100 

Breeds 185 

of  chickens 229 

of  ducks 23s 

of  horses 2:3 

of  swine 225 

Bronze  turkeys 236 

Brown  Swiss  cattle 188 

Buckhorn  plantain 148,  149 

Buds 27,  28 

roots  from 78 

Burdock 130,  131 

Butter 49 

Butter  and  eggs 132,  133 

Cactus,  Russian 139-142 

Calyx 92 

Canada  thistle 129,  130 

Capillary  attraction 14 

Carbohydrates 205,  206 

in  fodder ...    257 

Carbon 22 

Carbon  dioxide '. 22,  23 

Care^f  fowls 231 

Carrot,  wild 144,  145 

Casein 194,  206 

Caterpillar 176 

Cayuga  ducks 235 

Cell 10 

Charlock 138 


267 


268 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Cheese  factories igi 

Cherry,   blossom 93 

culture  of 160 

Chester  white  hogs 227,  228 

Cheviot  sheep 219,  220,  221 

Chicken,  diagram  of 264 

Chlorophyll 22,  26 

Chrj'santhemum 131,  132 

Cions 81 

Citrus  fruits 163-167 

Clays 215 

Cleft  graft 81,  82 

Clotbur 133,  134 

Clover 41,  42,  43,  48 

Clover  testing 69 

Clydesdale  horse 216 

Coach  horses 217 

Cochin  chickens 230 

Cocklebur 133,  134 

Codling  moth 159 

Colostrum 194 

Comb  honey 241 

Commercial  fertilizers 36,  52 

Compass  plant 147,  148 

Consumption ig6 

Copper  sulfate 57 

Corn 48,  49,  50,  loi-iis 

corn  belt loi,  102 

cultivation 107 

enemies iii,  112 

harvesting 107-109 

improving 1 14,  115 

planting 107 

products 1 10,  III 

testing  seed 105,  106 

yield loi,  102,  1 13 

Cornish  Indian  game  chickens.  .  .  .   230 

Corolla 93 

Cost  and  feeding 2 10 

Cotswold  sheep 223,  224 

Couch  grass 143,  144 

Cow,  care  of 197 

diagram  of 265 

Cowpea •     43 

Creameries 191 

Cropping  land 39 

Crops,  and  weeds 125-127 

rotation  of 47,  48 

to  raise  the  best 90 

Cross  fertilization 100 


PAGE 

Cucumber  blossom 99 

Curculio 160 

Curled  dock 136,  137 

Curled  rumex 136,  137 

Currant,  culture  of 155,  156 

propagated  by  cuttings 79 

Cuttings,  dormant 79 

green 80 

propagation  by 79 

Dairy  breeds 186-188 

Dairying 191-200 

removes  little  fertility 50 

Daisy 131,   132 

Damsel  fly 178 

Dan  Patch 214 

Decomposition 22 

Delaine  sheep 219,  221 

Destroyers,  natural 175 

Devon  cattle 190 

Digestible  nutrients 257,  258 

Dock 136,  137 

Dog  grass 143,  144 

Dormant  buds 27 

Dormant  cuttings 79 

Dorset  sheep 219,  223 

Draft  horses 215 

Dragon  fly 177 

Drainage 30 

Drone  bees 237,  238 

Dry  farming 170,  174 

Ducks  and  Turkeys 234-236 

Duroc-Jersey  hogs 225,  227 

Dutch  belted  cattle 188 

Earth  lamp 13 

Egg  breeds 229 

Egg  of  insect 176 

Eldorado  blackberry 154 

English  Shire  horse 216 

Evaporation 14 

from  plants 17 

makes  packing  necessary 65 

through  leaves 18 

Evergreen  trees 247,  250 

Extracted  honey 242 

Fat,  in  foods 207 

of  milk 192 

Feeding  chickens 2^2 


INDEX 


269 


PAGE 

Feeding,  principles  of 205-212 

Feeding  standards 207 

Feeding  stuffs^  manurial  value  of . .    2 1  l 

Fertility 40 

Fertilization,  cross 100 

of  ovule   gS 

Fertilizer 3g 

clover  a 41 

commercial 36,  52 

Fertilizing  constituents 261 

Fig lO; 

Filament 93 

Flat-headetl  borer 158 

Flowers,  parts  of 92-95 

imperfect  and  perfect 

97.   15  >.  152 

shrubbery  and 248 

Fly,  green 56 

Food  required  by  plants :i^i 

Formaldehyde 58 

Fungi 55-59 

Galloway  cattle 190 

Garden,  the 150 

Germination 25,  60,  6r 

affected  by  age 67 

causes  affecting 68 

Gluten 206 

Gooseberry,  culture  of 155,  156 

Grafting 80-83 

Grafting  wax 83 

Grain,  weights  of 264 

Grape,  culture  of 161,  162 

propagated  by  cuttings 79 

Green  cuttings 80 

Green  fly 56 

Grub 176 

Guernsey  cattle 187 

Hairy  woodpecker 159 

Hambletonian  horses 215 

Hampshire  sheep 219,  222,  223 

Hector  weed 139-142 

Hereford  cattle 189 

Holstein-Friesian  cattle 187 

Home  yards 245 

Honey  bees 237-244 

Honeycomb 241 

Hop  plant,  flowers  of 99 

Horned  Dorset  sheep 223 


PAGE 

Horse 213-218 

diagram  of 265 

Houdan  chickens 229,  230 

Humus 38,  3Q 

from  manure 52 

Husbandry,  animal 184-190 

Ichneumon  fly 175 

Imago 177 

Imperfect  flowers 97,   151,   152 

Indian  corn 48,  49,  50,  98 

Indian  ponies 217 

Insects,  animals  that  destroy.     175-183 

deQned 175 

pollination  by 94 

Irrigation 170-  174 

Jersey  cattle 186 

Kdlock 138 

Kerlock 138 

Lactic  acid 194 

Lactose 193 

Lady-bird  beetles 176 

Lady  bug 177 

Larva 176 

of  bee 239 

Layering 78 

Leaves 26 

do  not  take  in  water 18 

Leghorn  chickens 229 

Legumes 4 1-46 

Leicester  sheep 219,  223,  224 

Lemon 164-167 

Lettuce,  prickly 147,   14S 

wild 147,  148 

Lice,  plant 56 

Lime  and  sulphur  spray 169 

Limestone 45,  46 

Lincoln  sheep 224 

Litmus  paper 45,  46 

Loam 30 

Louse,  plant 56 

Mambrino  horses 215 

Manure 35,  36,  48 

best  fertilizer 39 

Maple  tree,  flowers  of 99 

Matter 9 


270 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Meat  breeds  of  chickens 230 

Melon,  flower  of 99 

Merino  sheep 219,  220 

Milk 49 

composition  of 192 

how  to  get  good 196 

Milk  thistle 147,  148 

Mineral  matter  in  plants 21 

Minorca  chickens 229,  230 

Morgan  horses 215 

Morning  glory 93 

Moth,  codling 159 

Mulches 53,  54 

Mustangs 217 

Mustard,  wild 138 

Narrow  dock 136,  137 

Native  cattle 190 

Nitrates .41,  42,  43 

Nitrogen 35,  36,  37,  39,  41-50 

in  feeding  stuffs 261-263 

Nutrients,  table  of 257-260 

Nutritive  ratio 207 

Oats 48,  49,  50 

Oat  smut 57,  58 

Olive 167 

Orange 163,  164 

diseases 166,  167 

enemies 164,  165 

propagated  by  cuttings 79 

Orchard,  the 157-162 

Ovary 94 

Ovule , . .     94 

fertilization  of 95 

Ox-eye  daisy 131,  132 

Oxford  sheep 219,  222,  223 

Parasites 55-59 

fungous 57 

of  poultry 23^ 

Paris  green 56 

Parsnip,  wild 139 

Pasteurization 199 

Paths 250 

Peach,  culture  of 161 

Pekin  ducks 234 

Percheron  horses 215 

Perennials 127 

Perfect  flowers 97,  151,  152 

Pests,  insect 157 


PAGE 

Petals ,  93 

Phosphate  of  lime 194 

Phosphoric  acid.  .35,  43,  47,  48,  49,  50 

in  feeding  stuffs 261-263 

Pistil,  parts  of 94 

Pistillate  flowers 97 

Plant  breeding 100 

Plant  food,  in  soil 31 

in  soil  water 34 

prepared  slowly 47 

Plant  lice 56 

Plantago 148,  149 

Plantain,  buckhorn 148,  149 

English 148,  149 

long  leaved 148,  149 

Planting,  rule  for  depth  of 73 

Plants,  and  water 17-19 

dry  the  soil 19 

evaporation  from 17 

growth  of 25-28 

how  to  improve 88-91 

in  water 34 

mineral  matter  in 21 

require  food 33 

Plowing  crops  under 39 

Plum,  culture  of 160 

Plymouth  Rock  chickens 230 

Poland-China  hogs 225,  226 

Polled  Durham  cattle 189 

Pollen 93 

Pollination 94 

Ponies 217 

Potash 35,  42,  43,  47,  48,  so 

in  feeding  stuffs 261-263 

Potato  beetle 55 

Potato  plant 27 

hill  selection 90 

reared  from  cuttings 79 

Poultry 229-233 

Poults 236 

Prickly  lettuce 147,  148 

Problem  in  landscape  gardening.. .    245 

Produce 11 

Profits  in  bee-keeping 243 

in  poultry 229 

Protein 194,  205,  206 

in  fodder 257-260 

Protoplasm 9,  11 

Pumpkin,  flower  of 99 

Pupa 177 


INDEX 


271 


PAGE 

Quack  grass i43i  M4 

Queen  bees 237.  238 

Quick  grass 143.  i44 

Quicklime 57 

Quitch  grass 143.  i44 

Rambouillet  sheep 21Q,  221 

Ramsted 133 

Raspberry,  cuhure  of iS4>  i5S 

Ratio,  nutritive 207 

Ration,  balanced 208 

Red  polled  cattle 190 

Rib  grass 148,  149 

Ripple  grass 148,  149 

Rollers 64 

Root  hairs 25 

Roots  need  air 62 

Rotation  of  crops 47  Si 

plan  of 50,  51 

Rouen  ducks 235 

Rumex 136,  137 

Russian  thistle 139-142 

Saltwort 139-142 

San  Jose  scale 168,  169 

School  yards 245,  251 

Scrub  cattle 190 

Seeds 28 

diagram  of 76 

efifect  of  water  on 60,  61,  63 

need  air 60 

table 2S3 

testing 67 

vitality  of 68 

weights  of 264 

Selection,  improvement  by 89,  90 

Semitropical  Fruits 163-169 

Sepal 92 

Separator,  cream 200 

Sheep 219-224 

diagram  of 265 

Shetland  ponies 217 

Shorthorn  cattle 189 

Shropshire  sheep 219,  221 

Shrubbery  and  flowers 248 

Silage 109,  1 10 

Silk  of  Indian  corn 98 

Silo 109,  1 10 

Simmenthal  cattle 190 

Smut,  oat 57 


PAGE 

Snap  dragon 132,  133 

Soil 13-16 

acidity 45,  46 

air  and  water  in 30 

fertility  of 33-37 

humus  in 38 

ideal 29-31 

inoculation 44,  45 

make-up  of  rich 35 

moisture  in 52 

nitrogen  in 35 

phosphoric  acid  in 35 

plant  food  in 31 

plants  dry  the 19 

potash  in 35 

Soil  water 13-16 

holds  plant  food 34 

Solutions 20 

Sour  dock 136,  137 

Southdown  sheep 219,  220 

Sow  thistle 135,  136 

Sparrow,  English 182 

Spider 165,  176 

Squash,  flower  of 99 

Stamens 93 

Staminate  flowers 97 

Starch 22,  23 

Stem 26 

Stigma 94 

Stock,  grafting 81 

Strawberry,   blossoms 97,  151 

culture  of 151-1S3 

effect  on  soil 49 

Style 94 

Subsurface  packer 173,  174 

Sugar  of  milk 193 

Swarming 240 

Swine 225-228 

Tamworth  hogs 227 

Tartar  weed 139,  142 

Terminal  bud 28 

Test,  Babcock 195,  201-204 

tuberculin 197 

Tester,  seed 67,  68,  105,  106 

Thistle,  Canada 129,  130 

English 147,  148 

milk 147,  148 

Russian 139-142 

sow 13s,  136 


272 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Thoroughbred  horse 214 

Tiling 31 

Toad .' 178,  179 

Toadflax 132,  133 

Tobacco 48,  50 

Tommy  grass 143,  144 

Transpiration      18 

Transplanting 84-87 

Trees 249,  250 

Trotting  horses   214 

Tubercles 41,  42 

Tuberculin  test 197 

Tuberculosis 196 

Turkeys,  ducks  and 234,  236 

Types  of  plantlets 72 

Vines 249 

Vineyard 161 

Vitality  of  seeds 68 

Vitriol,  blue 57 

Water,  in  soil 29,  30 

leaves  do  not  take  in 18 

not  at  rest 16 

plants  and 17 

soil 1.5-16 

Wax,  grafting 83 


PAGE 

Weeds,  annual 126 

biennial 1 26 

crops  and 12S-127         ' 

perennial 127 

Wheat 48,  40,  so,  116-124 

enemies 121,  122 

harvesting 120,  121 

planting 119,  120 

seed 119,  120 

soil  for 117 

types 116,  117 

yield ii8,  124 

Wheat  grass 143,  144 

Whip  graft 81,  82 

White  daisy 131,  132 

White  fly 165,  166 

White  weed 131,  132 

Wood  ashes 36 

Woodpecker,  hairy 159 

Worker  bees 237,  238 

Wyandotte  chickens 231 

Yards 245-252 

Yellow  dock 136,   137 

Yellows 161 

Yorkshire  hogs 226 


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